Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder are at high risk of being bullied, but research on teaching children with autism self-protection skills for bullying situations is scant. We taught five children self-protection skills for two types of bullying (threats and unkind remarks) and consecutive bullying occurrences. We first evaluated behavioral skills training and a textual prompt to teach children to report threats of physical or material harm, provide a disapproving statement after a first unkind remark, and occupy themselves with an activity away from a bully after a second unkind remark. Additional tactics were necessary to aid in the discrimination of bullying situations for two children. There were increases in the self-protection skills with all children. Results further support that an active-learning approach is efficacious in teaching responses to bullying in simulated situations. Considerations for teaching these skills while maintaining trust and rapport with children and caregivers are discussed.

Previous research has shown that low procedural fidelity can lead to decreased effectiveness and efficiency of skill acquisition during discrete-trial instruction. Previous research has also found that procedural fidelity may be substantially lower when a supervisor is not present to observe the session. Finding a socially acceptable, effective, and efficient method to increase and maintain high levels of staff members' procedural fidelity during covert observations is critical in the clinic setting. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effectiveness of video self-monitoring in increasing and maintaining high procedural fidelity among staff who implement discrete-trial instruction during covert and overt observations. Participants included four staff members working one-on-one with children with autism spectrum disorder. The results show that video self-monitoring was effective at increasing staff members' procedural fidelity and maintaining high fidelity over time.

Resurgence is the recurrence of target behavior (e.g., challenging behavior) during a worsening of reinforcement conditions (e.g., increases in response effort, decreases in alternative reinforcement). Previous studies have examined the prevalence and magnitude of resurgence during functional communication training implemented with discriminative stimuli. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to analyze the magnitude and prevalence of resurgence during delay-and-denial tolerance teaching. Similar to previous studies with discriminative stimuli, resurgence occurred for most participants and in about one third of transitions. When resurgence was present, challenging behavior increased to approximately 26% of baseline levels. Resurgence was less likely to occur during response-effort manipulations (i.e., complexity teaching, tolerance-response teaching) and was most likely to occur during increases in delays that ended following the passage of time rather than a response criterion. We discuss implications for treatment refinements and future treatment-relapse research.

Several studies have examined the prevalence of behavioral relapse among individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities following common treatment challenges (context changes, schedule thinning). Most applied studies compare behavior during the treatment challenges with the maximum level of behavior from five preceding treatment sessions. This max-of-5 criterion could inadvertently capture behavior in transition during the preceding treatment phase, thereby underestimating the prevalence of relapse. In the current study, we reanalyzed existing clinical data with the max-of-5 criterion and an alternative criterion less likely to capture target behavior in transition-the mean of the last two sessions (mean-of-2 criterion) of the treatment phase. As hypothesized, the max-of-5 criterion produced lower prevalence estimates relative to the mean-of-2 criterion. We encourage researchers conducting these analyses to weigh different approaches to reporting prevalence data and discuss considerations for future areas of research and practice related to measurement of relapse.

Behavior analysts typically assess and treat challenging behavior after it occurs regularly and at high severity. Although effective, this reactive approach is quite costly and resource intensive. A growing literature supports an alternative preventive approach; the first step involves conducting sensitivity tests to screen the topographies and functions of low-severity behavior evoked by establishing operations commonly included in challenging behavior research (e.g., Fahmie et al., 2020). Despite the potential value of sensitivity tests, their correspondence with functional analyses has yet to be established. This study measured the correspondence between social reinforcer classes nominated by sensitivity tests and social reinforcer classes verified by traditional functional analysis outcomes of the same behaviors. Participants included 10 young autistic learners who were reported to exhibit low-severity challenging behavior. Data showed generally high correspondence between both assessment outcomes for challenging behavior but not for appropriate requests.

Among the developmental milestones related to language and communication in early childhood, one that has been the subject of considerable research is response to name (RTN). Delayed or absent RTN in early childhood is a diagnostic marker for autism spectrum disorder and a target behavior in many early intervention curricula. This article describes two related studies. Study 1 evaluated the efficacy and efficiency of a behavioral screening-to-intervention model for RTN proposed by recent research. Overall, trials to mastery were reduced relative to previous research. Study 2 evaluated the efficacy of using behavioral skills training to teach caregivers to implement a RTN intervention with their child after that intervention was successful in a clinical setting. Generalized improvements in RTN with caregivers sometimes occurred but did not maintain without programmed reinforcement. Subsequent behavioral skills training was associated with increases in both child RTN and caregiver intervention fidelity.

Many researchers have evaluated how characteristics of feedback may influence trainee performance, but relatively little attention has been allocated to directly assessing trainee preference for feedback characteristics and its relation to performance. Thus, the primary purpose of this study was to use a within-subject experimental design to directly assess trainee preference for the frequency of feedback and its relation to task performance. A secondary objective was to evaluate how trainee preferences varied across specific task components based on component complexity. Thirty-five undergraduate students completed two arbitrary tasks and were given the opportunity to request feedback after each component of the task. For 85.71% of our participants, an inverse relation was observed between preference for feedback frequency and task performance. Participants requested feedback less often as performance improved. Feedback preferences also varied with the complexity of each component of the task. Implications for training, supervision, and feedback practices are discussed.

Only 25% of adults meet both aerobic and strength training recommendations for physical activity. Contingency management interventions have been used to increase physical activity; however, they may be cost prohibitive. Intermittently provided incentives lower costs and are effective for various health behaviors. The present study investigated whether intermittent cash incentives can increase physical activity (step counts). The researchers used a reversal design with 21 participants, and goals during the intervention were set using a percentile schedule. Contingent on meeting goals, participants could earn the opportunity to draw tickets that corresponded to either no cash or cash incentives. Step counts significantly increased from baseline to the intervention phase. Overall, intermittent cash incentives may be a viable and cost-effective approach to promoting health behavior.

Functional analyses are used to assess maintaining variables of behavior. Despite the large amount of research on functional analyses with humans, there are limited examples with nonhumans and even fewer studies incorporating modifications to standard methods of assessment with nonhumans. One modification that has yet to be evaluated with nonhuman animals is the trial-based functional analysis in which control and test conditions are embedded in naturalistic environments. This study compared a standard functional analysis with a trial-based functional analysis across different topographies of problem behavior with dogs. The results of the functional analyses corresponded for every dog. Individualized treatments were designed to reduce problem behavior. Implications of the trial-based functional analysis include feasibility for privately owned dogs and dogs under the care of shelters. The trial-based functional analysis offers a modification to established functional analyses that may allow increased access to the assessment of problem behavior.

Choice involves engaging in a selection response when multiple options are concurrently available. Choices can be incorporated into many components of behavior-analytic treatment such as providing clients with a choice between multiple items, activities, or tasks. We reviewed the main characteristics of 38 behavior-analytic articles that compared choice and no-choice conditions. We coded the experimental arrangements of choice and no-choice conditions and analyzed potential factors affecting preferences for choice and no choice. The findings suggest that the sizing of alternatives from which to choose, the timing of choice opportunities, and the timing of the delivery of the chosen option varied across the studies. Furthermore, preferences for choice shifted with differential reinforcement history and response effort manipulations of choice or no choice. The findings suggest that individual variables should be considered when providing choices, but more research is needed.

Contingency management (CM) is notably successful as a substance use disorder treatment and is most effective when targeting monosubstance use. Evidence suggests the effects of CM exceed predictions based on the value of the incentives delivered for monosubstance abstinence. In this systematic review, we examine common variations of CM interventions applied to a single substance to determine what factors may contribute to the larger effect. Our results show that CM produced moderate to large effect sizes when single drugs were targeted, with stable effects over time. We also found that interventions targeting cocaine abstinence overwhelmingly outperformed their predicted effect, whereas interventions for smoking cessation did not. Thus, incentives alone may not account for the success of CM, at least when applied to stimulant use disorder. We propose other potential sources of the effect including social reinforcement and the specific parameters of the reinforcement schedule.

Contingency management is a well-validated behavior change intervention; however, the financial incentives can prevent it from being widely adopted. Most Americans have a smartphone with applications (apps) that they find enjoyable and engage with for a considerable amount of time. A potential avenue for contingency management dissemination is a mobile smartphone application that leverages the existing reward value of smartphone apps as a tool for behavior change. The present study examined the acceptability of the Re-Connect concept, which proposes to block nonessential but highly preferred apps and unlock them contingent on meeting the user's health goals. Out of the sample surveyed (N = 146), 63.02% reported that they would be likely to use Re-Connect and 67.81% would recommend it to someone. Acceptability of Re-Connect increased with greater user control. These results suggest that access to preferred smartphone apps could be a socially acceptable incentive in a contingency management intervention.

Understanding of the correspondence between intervention preference and efficacy is limited. We systematically reviewed 112 articles (457 cases) evaluating efficacy of and preference for behavioral interventions. We analyzed the percentage of cases for whom interventions were preferred and efficacious across broad (e.g., behavior reduction, performance, skill acquisition) and specific (e.g., noncontingent reinforcement, video modeling) intervention types. Authors reported one preferred intervention for most cases. Regarding efficacy, authors reported about half of cases as having one efficacious intervention and the other half having multiple equally efficacious interventions. The same intervention was preferred and efficacious for 74% of cases for whom authors reported one preferred and one efficacious intervention. Several specific interventions were generally preferred and efficacious across cases (e.g., digital stimuli, computer-based instruction, accumulated reinforcement, contingent reinforcement). We discuss clinical recommendations, the importance of assessing preference, and the need for research in developing protocols for assessing intervention preference.

We replicated and extended Kanaman et al. (2022) by comparing outcomes of solitary (leisure items only), social (leisure items with social interaction), and combined (leisure items alone and leisure items with social interaction) stimulus preference assessments to determine the extent to which the inclusion of social interaction influenced the outcomes of preference assessments for five children with autism. We then conducted reinforcer assessments to determine the reinforcing efficacy of high- and low-preferred leisure items when presented with and without social interaction. The results showed that both high- and low-preferred items functioned as reinforcers to varying degrees for all participants and the inclusion of social interaction increased the reinforcing efficacy of some items for all participants. Additionally, the results showed that combined preference assessments predicted reinforcer assessment outcomes for two of five participants but produced false-negative outcomes for three participants. Clinical implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Many individuals with Down syndrome are diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a medical condition that substantially affects health and quality of life. The most common treatment for OSA is positive airway pressure (PAP) therapy. Few studies have examined interventions to improve PAP therapy adherence for adults with developmental disabilities or have recruited the assistance of caregivers to improve adherence with this therapy in the home. This study evaluated the efficacy of a caregiver-implemented behavioral intervention to increase PAP use for four adults with Down syndrome and OSA. The experimenters trained caregivers via telehealth to implement the intervention in their homes. The intervention consisted of graduated exposure, noncontingent reinforcement, and differential positive and negative reinforcement without escape extinction. The intervention increased the duration of PAP use for all four participants. These results provide preliminary support for the efficacy of this intervention and service-delivery model.

A resurgence in research on response disequilibrium theory has prompted a concise review of the literature from the past 5 years. Response disequilibrium, also known as response deprivation, attributes reinforcement and punishment effects to constraints on free-operant baseline levels of behavior. By describing clinically relevant behaviors in terms of instrumental and contingent activities, researchers and practitioners can predict intervention outcomes with a disequilibrium model. We summarize the empirical outcomes of disequilibrium-informed interventions across six articles and discuss areas of future research.

Substance use disorders (SUDs) affect millions and have substantial negative consequences for individuals and society. Social incentives that leverage social networks for reinforcement or feedback have been used to improve health behaviors such as physical activity. This study investigated the feasibility, acceptability, and usability of a novel digital social incentive system embedded into a web- and smartphone-based platform for SUD recovery. The system leveraged a preexisting care team to deliver social incentives following notifications on recovery-related goal completion and abstinence to members undergoing SUD treatment. In total, 243 notifications were sent to care-team members, resulting in 117 social incentives, nearly all of which (99.15%) were coded as positive. Treatment members and care-team members provided favorable endorsements on acceptability and usability measures. Some areas of improvement were identified, such as increasing personalization and transparency. This digital social incentive system was feasible, acceptable, and usable as an adjunct treatment component for SUD recovery.

Using telehealth technology to deliver parent training in evidence-based intervention has been suggested to increase the accessibility of such interventions and improve skill acquisition and generalization. Within behavior analysis, global restrictions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for the development of telehealth supports for families. The current research examined the online delivery of a parent-mediated implementation of the Preschool Life Skills program (PLS). Four parents completed the parent PLS program with their typically developing children (aged 3-5 years) via weekly videoconferencing sessions. A multiple-probe experimental design was employed to assess the effect of the intervention on children's preschool life skills and challenging behavior. Parental embedding of PLS strategies during daily activities was also evaluated. The results demonstrated increases in children's preschool life skills, decreases in challenging behavior, and evidence of parent acquisition and use of PLS strategies.

We evaluated the effects of behavioral skills training on improving participant implementation of functional communication training with multiple schedules when working with a confederate. Behavioral skills training produced mastery-level responding for all six participants who required training, providing the first empirically supported training for this functional communication training approach. Next, we assessed durability during training challenges with (a) procedural changes to the original protocol, (b) a novel confederate with different discriminative stimuli and reinforcers, and (c) relapsed confederate destructive behavior. Training effects degraded at least once for all participants and in 62% of training challenges, although continuing to expose the participant to the challenging situations or providing postsession booster training resolved the degradation in most cases. We discuss these findings in relation to their clinical implications and directions for future research.