There has been rising international concern over media use with children under two. As little is known about the factors associated with more or less viewing among very young children, this study examines maternal factors predictive of TV/video viewing rates among American infants and toddlers. Guided by the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction, this survey study examines relationships between children's rates of TV/video viewing and their mothers' structural life circumstances (e.g., number of children in the home; mother's screen use), and cognitions (e.g., attitudes; norms). Results suggest that mothers' structural circumstances and cognitions respectively contribute independent explanatory power to the prediction of children's TV/video viewing. Influence of structural circumstances is partially mediated through cognitions. Mothers' attitudes as well as their own TV/video viewing behavior were particularly predictive of children's viewing. Implications of these findings for international efforts to understand and reduce infant/toddler TV/video exposure are discussed.

Cultivation research has shown that heavy television viewing is linked to audiences' generalized, and often skewed, views of reality. This research investigates whether television viewing is related to adolescents' views about the consequences of drinking and whether psychological trait reactance moderates this cultivation effect. Results from a survey of 445 American teenagers show that cumulative exposure to television is linked to reduced beliefs about alcohol's negative consequences and greater intentions to drink. These effects were greater for adolescents low on trait reactance. This research adds to the general psychological research on trait reactance as a moderator of media influences and makes a substantive contribution towards furthering our understanding of the media and public health concerns that surround risky adolescent behaviors.

Video game and Internet use can be associated with poor mental health and educational outcomes among adolescents. Racial/ethnic minority youth use these media more than White youth. Video game and Internet use among adolescents with mental health and educational difficulties may therefore differ by race/ethnicity in clinically meaningful ways. We analyzed a representative sample of 8 grade students in the United States from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Kindergarten (N=6,700). Stratifying by gender, we assessed racial/ethnic differences in the associations between video game and Internet use, mental health, and reading and math achievement. Significant minority-White differences were identified in associations between media use and mental health and educational achievement. Video game use was relatively high among black females with prior mental health diagnoses and Asian-American males with high internalizing symptoms. Understanding video game and Internet use among racial/ethnic minority youth with mental health and educational difficulties may improve clinical practice.

This study investigated the role that media message processing variables stemming from the Message Interpretation Process (MIP) model play in adolescents' intentions to engage in sexual activity. Data collected from 873 adolescents in the United States were examined in an ordered logistic regression model containing demographic variables; attitudes; self-efficacy; parent and peer normative beliefs; and media message processing variables. The analyses revealed that media message processing variables have a unique influence on adolescent sexual intentions above and beyond the influence of all the other predictors. Specifically, higher levels of perceived realism of, perceived similarity to, and identification with media messages were related to higher levels of adolescent sexual intent. These findings support the relevance of logical processing of media messages for adolescent intentions for sexual activity and suggest that this may be a possible cognitive mechanism to address in media literacy education programs focusing on promoting healthy decision-making.

Experts have expressed concerns about the lack of evidence demonstrating that children's "educational" applications (apps) have educational value. This study aimed to operationalize Hirsh-Pasek, Zosh, et al.'s (2015) Four Pillars of Learning into a reliable coding scheme (Pillar 1: Active Learning, Pillar 2: Engagement in the Learning Process, Pillar 3: Meaningful Learning, Pillar 4: Social Interaction), describe the educational quality of commercially-available apps, and examine differences in educational quality between free and paid apps. We analyzed 100 children's educational apps with the highest downloads from Google Play and Apple app stores, as well as 24 apps most frequently played by preschool-age children in a longitudinal cohort study. We developed a coding scheme in which each app earned a value of 0-3 for each Pillar, defining lower-quality apps as those scoring ≤ 4, summed across the Four Pillars. Overall scores were low across all Pillars. Free apps had significantly lower Pillar 2 (Engagement in Learning Process) scores (t-test, < .0001) and overall scores (t-test, < .0047) when compared to paid apps, due to the presence of distracting enhancements. These results highlight the need for improved design of educational apps guided by developmental science.

Adolescents spend many hours per day watching television, and there are racial differences in time spent watching television and in show preferences. Prior research suggests there are also differential associations in how exposure to media content affects adolescent behavior. This study examines the demographic representation of main characters and health risk behaviors (i.e., sex, alcohol use, violence, bullying, and their combinations) portrayed in television content popular with Black and non-Black adolescents. A content analysis of television show characters (n=377) from the 2014-15 season was conducted on shows popular with 14-17 year old adolescent audiences in the United States. Group popularity was determined by Nielsen ratings segmented by Black and non-Black (primarily White) adolescents. Results suggest that character representation varies by whether shows were popular with Blacks or others, and that risk portrayals are common in all popular content with few group differences. Implications for adolescent behavior are discussed.

The stay-at-home orders of the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted U.S. adolescents' lives in numerous ways during the spring of 2020, including substantial changes to in-person routines and increased reliance on digital media. For adolescent girls, stay-at-home practices may have implications for body image concerns. In this research brief, we examine adolescent girls' pandemic-related body image concerns and longitudinal associations with depressive symptoms. The sample included 93 U.S. adolescent girls ( = 15.01; 68.8% White), with approximately 2/3 at temperamental risk for depression. Participants self-reported their depressive symptoms and pandemic-related body image concerns via online surveys at three assessments: Time 1 occurred in April/May 2020, approximately one month into stay-at-home orders, followed by two-week and seven-month follow-up assessments. Two pandemic-related body image concerns were assessed: (1) concerns about disrupted appearance-management routines and (2) evaluating one's appearance on video-chat. Both forms of pandemic-related body image concerns predicted depressive symptoms two weeks later, and concerns about disrupted routines also predicted depressive symptoms seven months later. In an era of social distancing, frequent technology-based interactions, and disrupted routines, future work should continue to investigate adolescents' body image concerns and the implications for longer-term mental health outcomes.

Watching a lot of television (TV), where alcohol consumption is depicted frequently and mostly positively, can enhance teens' drinking intentions. This influence is particularly problematic among high-reactance teens (that is, those with a predisposition to resist adult control). This study documents one strategy parents can use to counteract TV influences: parental presence during the TV viewing experience (co-viewing). Survey data were collected from a nationally representative sample of parents and their children aged 13-17 (N = 396). Parents reported how they monitored their children's TV consumption, and adolescents completed a survey in which they reported the amount of TV they watch, completed a trait reactance scale and indicated their views and intentions regarding drinking. Results revealed that the influence of TV viewing on adolescents' drinking intentions was lower for teens high in trait reactance who grew up with parents who co-view television with them. This did not occur when parents adopted instructive or restrictive communication strategies. The parental monitoring strategy of co-viewing thus emerges as a promising protective approach for a population that has traditionally been considered vulnerable (i.e., high reactance teens).

Despite the ubiquity of tablets and smartphones, television remains the most frequently used screen media consumed by young children. However, it is likely that variability exists in how young children use media; for example, while some may view small amounts of aggressive content, others may view many hours each day of aggressive and prosocial media content. It is possible that differences in toddler television time and content also impact behavioral outcomes. The aims of this study were two-fold; first, we examined profiles of children's time spent watching television and media content viewed. Second, we examined longitudinal relations between media use profiles and outcomes including aggression, prosocial behavior, and problematic media use. Results suggested a three-profile solution of children's television time and content, including "Low TV content," "High child-centered content," and "High aggressive content" profiles. The "High aggressive content" group experienced higher levels of problematic media use and aggressive behavior one year later compared to other classes. The discussion focuses on implications of these findings. We urge parents to become aware of both television time and media content as they may relate to problematic media use behaviors in young children.

The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly altered family life, and research among adults and families is finding increases in financial stress, mental health problems, screen time, parental conflict, and child behavior problems. Given these patterns, we sought to replicate these findings with a younger and largely non-white sample and consider how these constructs might relate to each other by using the Family Stress Model. From surveys of 247 predominately Latine mothers and fathers of children under 4 years in the U.S., we found that financial strain was related to children's media exposure and use, largely through impacts on parents' mental health and coparenting relationship. Interestingly, only use of television in the background and during mealtimes were associated with increases in children's behavior problems. Such findings better capture how stress may operate in a family system and offer a way to counsel parents about healthier media habits for children.

The development of problematic media use in early childhood is not well understood. The current study examined long-term associations between parental media efficacy, parental media monitoring, and problematic media use across a three-year period of time during early childhood. Participants included 432 parents who reported on their own parenting and their child's use of problematic media once a year for three years ( age of child at Wave 1 = 29.68 months, = 3.73 months). Results revealed that early parental media efficacy predicted lower levels of child problematic media use over time. Restrictive media monitoring was also related to lower levels of child problematic media use over time. Additionally, general parental efficacy was related to parental media efficacy and lower child problematic media use, both at the cross-sectional and longitudinal levels. Discussion focuses on encouraging early parental media efficacy (and exploring other potential mechanisms) as a way to mitigate the development of problematic media use over time.

Problematic media use (PMU) during early childhood has the potential to interfere with the healthy functioning of family systems and may be associated with significant long-term problems for the child. However, we know very little about what contributes to early childhood PMU, particularly in the family context. We examine parenting factors as correlates of child PMU in two studies, from two different countries, using two different methods. Study 1 (N=93, Mage=45.3months, SD=10.15, 58%males, 87%mothers) investigated the concurrent role of self-reported parental burnout and parent-child conflict and closeness as correlates of child PMU in an early childhood sample in New Zealand. Study 2 (N=269, Mage=41.17months, SD=3.06 months, 49%males, 95%mothers) investigated observed parental warmth and harsh criticism as predictors of concurrent and longitudinal PMU in an early childhood sample in the United States. Together, findings showed that in both countries approximately 22-25% of young children show symptoms of PMU. After controlling for parent's PMU, parent-child conflict, warmth and parental burnout were not associated with child PMU. Low levels of parent-child closeness and parent's use of harsh criticism were predictive of child PMU. The findings advance our understanding of some of the parenting factors that influence the development of PMU in young children.

Adolescents spend a substantial portion of their time using social media. Yet, there is a lack of understanding regarding how often parents and adolescents communicate about this social media use. To address this gap, we developed the Parent-Adolescent Communication about Adolescents' Social Media Use Scale (PACAS). In a first data wave, among 388 Dutch adolescents (13-15 years; 54% girls), exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses distinguished four scales: parental solicitation, adolescent disclosure, adolescent secrecy, and parental knowledge. All four scales had strong internal reliability and correlated in the expected directions. We re-established the validity and internal reliability and obtained test-retest reliability in a second wave, in which 330 adolescents were surveyed again. The findings show that parents and adolescents infrequently communicate about social media. Parental knowledge about adolescents' social media use strongly depends on the communication efforts of both parties. Altogether, the PACAS provides a valuable tool to explore the dynamics of parent-adolescent communication about social media.

Children's screen time (ST) increased in recent years, but investigations of the content and context (e.g., parental presence, and device type) of ST in predicting early academic skills remains understudied. In this study of 127 four- and five-year-olds, we examined whether the educational content and contextual information about children's ST from time diary interviews at age 4 predicted direct assessments of academic skills at age five. Cluster analyses detected three unique groups: Cluster One was "lowest ST and highest non-educational TV, with little parental presence," Cluster Two was "moderate ST and highest educational mobile devices, with moderate parental presence," and Cluster Three was "highest total ST and moderate educational ST and high parental presence." Children in Cluster Two scored significantly higher in literacy skills at age five than peers in Cluster One and Cluster Three. Children in Cluster One scored significantly higher in spatial skills compared to those in Cluster Three. No significant associations were detected between children's ST and number skills. Findings suggest that educational content and contextual features of ST combine in meaningful ways and appear to better predict children's literacy and spatial skills compared to variable-centered approaches. Methodological implications of this research and future directions are discussed.