The significant economic and health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic have forced archaeologists to consider the concept of resilience in the present day, as it relates to their profession, students, research projects, cultural heritage, and the livelihoods and well-being of the communities with a stake in the sites they study. The global crisis presents an opportunity to cement archaeological practice in a foundation of community building. We can learn from the ancestors, , how investing in community-social networks at different scales-makes us more resilient to crises. In so doing, we can improve the quality and equity of the science we produce and ensure relevant outcomes for living communities and future generations.

The COVID-19 pandemic is firing up our imagination about how to account for the past epidemics in archaeological contexts. This essay is a reflection on some of the historical cases of epidemic outbreaks in Yorùbá history, and what we can learn from social memory, oral traditions, and recent eyewitness accounts on how microbial attacks were managed in ancestral Yorùbá urban centers. Malignant microbes usually thrive in the kind of settlement configurations-dense towns and cities-that supported the preferred sociopolitical organization among the Yorùbá for over a millennium. Sacred groves were incorporated into the ancestral Yorùbá urban planning. They served many roles, including as isolation centers for managing epidemic outbreaks. Such isolation sites are difficult to identify in archaeological contexts without the aid of historical sources. However, contemplating how these special spaces were embedded in the past Yorùbá cultural lives could broaden our imagination of social regeneration processes in times of crisis (e.g., infectious disease).

The study of the Palaeolithic in Senegal has made considerable progress in the last decade and has provided a renewed vision of the behavioral evolution of prehistoric populations in West Africa. The cultural trajectories within the region seem to be highly variable and bear witness to strong behavioral dynamics, the mechanisms of which still need to be better understood. However, the number of reliable, dated, and stratified sites, as well as the palaeoenvironmental data providing a context for populations in their palaeolandscapes, is still scarce. In order to provide new and solid data, we conducted new archaeological survey in the Niokolo-Koba National Park in south-central Senegal, aiming at a preliminary identification of Pleistocene and early Holocene sedimentary deposits. Here, we report an overview of the newly discovered industries found in different contexts. Most of the 27 identified sites show surface and out-of-context assemblages, but other sites are stratified and have all the criteria to justify the development of a long-term archaeological, geochronological, geomorphological, and palaeobotanical project. The Niokolo-Koba National Park, through which the Gambia River flows, is characterized by an abundance of sources of knappable material and by well-preserved sedimentary sequences. Therefore, archaeological research in the Niokolo-Koba National Park has the potential to provide major milestones in our understanding of the evolutionary dynamics at work in West Africa during the early periods of occupation of the region.

The Iringa Region is famous among archaeologists for the Acheulean site of Isimila, and among historians as the stronghold where Chief Mkwawa led the Hehe resistance against German colonial forces. However, our research reveals that Iringa has a rich archaeological record that spans the period from the Stone Age into the recent past. This article summarizes the results of 14 years of research by our team, the Iringa Region Archaeological Project (IRAP). Since 2006, IRAP members have recorded 67 sites, and this only scratches the surface of the archaeological potential in the area. These sites, some of which were recorded in conjunction with local participants, have archaeological component characteristic of the Early, Middle, and Later Stone Age, the Iron Age, and the recent past. We consider the archaeological and historical value of Iringa to be high and hope that this work inspires future research, tourism, and conservation efforts in the area.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed how coloniality and racism are endemic to modern society. This was reflected in many early western discourses, French in particular, about the pandemic in Africa. These discourses unveiled old colonial antagonism, projection, stigmatization, and paternalism. The articulation of such discourses among well-informed and sometimes well-meaning people calls for deeper introspection on archaeological practices and modalities of community engagement. Building on archaeology's multiple contributions to Africa's past and observed practices of resilience in Senegal by ordinary people in the face of the spread of COVID-19, this essay reflects on the relevance of the archives, including the archaeological record, as usable resources for managing the problems of our times.

Imprints of domesticated pearl millet ( (L.) R. Br.) spikelets, observed as temper in ceramics dating to the third millennium BC, provide the earliest evidence for the cultivation and domestication process of this crop in northern Mali. Additional sherds from the same region dating to the fifth and fourth millennium BC were examined and found to have pearl millet chaff with wild morphologies. In addition to studying sherds by stereomicroscopy and subjecting surface casts to scanning electron microscopy (SEM), we also deployed X-ray microcomputed tomography (microCT) on eleven sherds. This significantly augmented the total dataset of archaeological pearl millet chaff remains from which to document the use of the wild pearl millet as ceramic temper and the evolution of its morphology over time. Grain sizes were also estimated from spikelets preserved in the ceramics. Altogether, we are now able to chart the evolution of domesticated pearl millet in western Africa using three characteristics: the evolution of nonshattering stalked involucres; the appearance of multiple spikelet involucres, usually paired spikelets; and the increase in grain size. By the fourth millennium BC, average grain breadth had increased by 28%, although spikelet features otherwise resemble the wild type. In the third millennium BC, the average width of seeds is 38% greater than that of wild seeds, while other qualitative features of domestication are indicated by the presence of paired spikelets and the appearance of nondehiscent, stalked involucres. Nonshattering spikelets had probably become fixed by around 2000 BC, while increases in average grain size continued into the second millennium BC. These data now provide a robust sequence for the morphological evolution of domesticated pearl millet, the first indigenous crop domesticated in western Africa.

Professor Randi Haaland is a Norwegian archaeologist with a distinctive anthropological approach and global research interests. In this conversation, Randi Haaland reflects on her extraordinary and multifaceted engagement with archaeology and Africa for over 50 years, from her formative experience as a young woman among the Fur in Sudan in the mid-1960s, through her research between the processual and post-processual paradigms, to the capacity-building programs she initiated with the support of the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD). Randi Haaland created her unique path in the archaeology of Africa. This interview shows that it has been the right path towards a novel and in-depth understanding of the human past, especially on food culture, beginnings of food production, gender, and technology.

Over the past decade, the increasing wealth of new archaeological data on the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in Senegal and Mali has broadened our understanding of West Africa's contributions to cultural developments. Within the West African sequence, the phase of Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3, ca. 59-24 ka) yielded so far the best known and extensive archaeological information. The site of Toumboura III encompasses an occupation dated by optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) to between 40 ± 3 ka and 30 ± 3 ka. It provides the largest, well-dated, and stratified lithic assemblage in West Africa for the MSA and sheds light on an unprecedented cultural expression for this period, adding to the notable diversity of the late MSA in this region. We conducted a technological analysis of the lithic components following the approach. The lithic assemblage features a prevalence of bifacial technology and the exploitation of flakes as blanks for tool production. The craftspeople manufactured distinct types of bifacial tools, including small bifacial points shaped by pressure technique. The new data from Toumboura III demonstrate behavioral patterns that are entirely new in the region. By revealing behavioral innovations and technological particularities, these results on the techno-cultural dynamics during the MIS 3 phase of the MSA enhance our understanding of the complex Pleistocene population history in this part of Africa.

Archaeological research on the Saloum Delta (Senegal) shell middens has had relative highs and lows since the first half of the twentieth century, but they are one of the most investigated regional clusters in West Africa. Research has been structured along three main thematic axes: mortuary archaeology (investigating burial mounds); taphonomy (assessing the rhythm and speed of shell midden formation); and ethnoarchaeology (contributing to the construction actualistic references). The Oudierin Drainage Archaeological Project was designed to shift perspective from single sites to the "region"-in this case, the Bolon Oudierin drainage-by investigating the long-term dynamics of the local shellfish economy via fine-tuned "motorboat" and pedestrian surveys, detailed site-mapping and recording, and excavation at two key sites. The research reported here presents new details on the structure of large shell middens, including detailed stratigraphic sections, activity areas, and material culture. The analysis of shell size variations along the stratigraphic column of the largest midden allows for modeling the reasons for the punctuated nature of shell middens formation-relatively short periods of exploitation followed by longer periods of abandonment. Finally, it is shown that shellfish exploitation started some 10,000 years ago during the early Holocene, much earlier than the formation of the Saloum Delta as known today. The formation of cemeteries with burial mounds occurred early in the second millennium (AD 1000-1300), supporting the Diorom-Boumak sequence.

Numerous doctoral degree holders were trained in African archaeometallurgy in the Global North as well as on the African continent. African archaeometallurgy continues to attract a significant number of researchers from Europe and North America. This paper is based on our lived experiences as resident African archaeometallurgists. We argue that out of frustration because of unequal power relations and lack of access to archaeological science laboratories and funding, most African archaeometallurgists are now pursuing other research areas and careers altogether. We propose some solutions to ensure sustainability in the training and practice of archaeological scientists on the African continent. We conclude that African scholars need to develop home-grown and long-term research capacities and strategies.

As an introduction to several papers from the "Igbo-Ukwu at 50" symposium in September 2021, this article reviews the history of the discoveries and excavations, the early debates over chronology, and more recent research contributions that refine and expand our understanding of this unique site. These include new field investigations at Igbo Ukwu, new radiocarbon dates, textile analysis, chemical analyses of glass, and carnelian beads plus lead isotope analyses of leaded bronze and copper artifacts to identify source areas, and metallographic studies.

High-resolution paleoenvironmental research allows us to pinpoint the tempo and amplitude of past climate changes. Abrupt climate events have axiomatically triggered cascades of adjustments, in vegetation, fauna, humans, and pathogens. This essay focuses on the abrupt end of the African Humid Episode (9000-6000 cal BP), ca 5000 cal BP in the Sahara. Neolithic pastoralists, practicing transhumance between sandy lowlands and Saharan mountains, adopted new cultural practices: cattle burials and livestock bone deposits in built installations. Their ritual nature is indisputable. But ritual for what? If considered from the perspective of livestock zoonoses, such practices may point to the "dark side" of cultural adjustments-strategies to counter human and livestock diseases. Livestock zoonoses are constant sources of emerging infectious diseases (EID) in the present, as they were in the past. Sustained research on livestock and human health are of paramount importance given the accelerating rate of world urbanization.

It is clear from their natural histories that various kinds of diseases would have affected African communities in the distant past. Climatic factors may have reduced the impact of plague-like epidemics across much of the continent. Because of the link between environment and disease vectors, the presence of a disease may have been a stimulus for some group movements in the African past. Evidence of the direct effects of diseases on human populations is generally elusive. Paleopathologists can identify some endemic diseases, but evidence from Africa is sparse. Paleogenomics research can also identify some (not all) endemic and epidemic disease vectors. Recent African aDNA discoveries of inherited resistance to endemic diseases suggest that future paleogenomic research may help us learn much more about the impact of diseases on the African past.

Shell beads are well established in the archaeological record of sub-Saharan Africa and appear as early as 75,000 BP; however, most research has focused on ostrich eggshell (OES) and various marine mollusc species. Beads made from various land snails shells (LSS), frequently described as , also appear to be widespread. Yet tracking their appearance and distribution is difficult because LSS beads are often intentionally or unintentionally lumped with OES beads, there are no directly dated examples, and bead reporting in general is highly variable in the archaeological literature. Nevertheless, and other potential cases of LSS beads are present at over 80 archaeological sites in at least eight countries, spanning the early Holocene to recent past. Here, we collate published cases and report on several more. We also present a new case from Magubike Rockshelter in southern Tanzania with the first directly dated LSS beads, which we use to illustrate methods for identifying LSS as a raw material. Despite the long history of OES bead production on the continent and the abundance of land snails available throughout the Pleistocene, LSS beads appear only in the late Holocene and are almost exclusively found in Iron Age contexts. We consider possible explanations for the late adoption of land snails as a raw material for beadmaking within the larger context of environmental, economic, and social processes in Holocene Africa. By highlighting the existence of these artifacts, we hope to facilitate more in-depth research on the timing, production, and distribution of LSS beads in African prehistory.

The Canary Islands are an archipelago that lies about 100 km west of North Africa. Barley () has been continuously cultivated since the colonization of the islands. To investigate the agricultural history of the islands, the DNA from multiple individuals of six extant landraces of barley was sequenced, and the resulting data were analyzed with ABC modeling. Estimates of separation times of barley populations on the different islands and the mainland were congruent with archaeological dating of the earliest settlements on the islands. The results of the genetic analyses were consistent with the continuous cultivation of barley on Lanzarote island since it was first colonized, but suggested cultivation was carried out at a smaller scale than on Gran Canaria and Tenerife. Contrary to archaeological evidence and early written historical sources, the genetic analyses suggest that barley was cultivated on a larger scale on Tenerife than on Gran Canaria. The genetic analysis of contemporary barley added support to the dating of the colonization of the islands and pointed to the need for more archaeological data concerning barley cultivation on Tenerife.