The questions - When did humans arrive in the Americas? Who were they, or from where did they come from? -are enduring and fascinating inquiries that have been approached from different perspectives, thanks to the contributions of archaeology, biological anthropology, and linguistics, among other disciplines. As a result, and after several centuries of studies, this body of research inspired several proposed models on the peopling of the Americas. These models are not only equally unique from each other but also distinct from the current themes in recent literature. However, there is a limited and occasionally inaccurate reference to the knowledge produced in the peripheral countries. This may be attributed to differences in language, academic traditions, as well as the consequences of geopolitics and neocolonialism in science. By reviewing both the old and recent literature, my aim is to present a historical account of how biological evidence has contributed to supporting and discussing some of the broad models that were proposed to explain the peopling of the Americas. Instead of providing an exhaustive account on the models, herein I focus on critically linking evidence and discussions ranging from the early skeletal discoveries at Lagoa Santa in Brazil in the 1830s to the current challenges of integrating a large amount of disparate data and collaborating with indigenous communities in the "omics" era. Far from being fully understood, investigations into the antiquity and the ancestral origin of Native Americans are revealing that these complex questions should be addressed by combining diverse data, articulating information at finer and larger grain scales, and adopting a sensitive and respectful approach by engaging with the views of indigenous communities.

The Lue ethnic group, which speaks a language that is part of the broader Tai-Kadai linguistic family, extends from Southern China to upper Southeast Asia. Their migration to Northern Thailand exemplifies how migration patterns influence genetic diversity in populations of Thailand. To delve deeper into their genetic history, we generated 144 mitochondrial HVR-1 sequences from three Lue populations and combined them with data obtained from related ethnic groups. These totaled 1,100 sequences gathered across 27 populations including the Lue, Yong, Yuan, and Dai. Analysis has revealed a low degree of haplotype diversity and a small effective population size, which indicate that founder effects impacted the maternal genetic structure of Lue communities. The complex migration history and multiple resettlements of Lue settlers have contributed to significant genetic heterogeneity among those living in Thailand. A notable finding was the identification of a genetic connection among Lue, as well as their close relative Yong populations in Thailand, and the Dai people in Dehong, China, which suggests a shared maternal ancestry or assimilation between these groups.

Bone histomorphometry refers to the study of the structure and microscopic features of bone tissue. It involves the measurement and assessment of bone microanatomy, and it provides valuable information on bone properties. Through the application of histomorphometry, researchers can acquire information on bone metabolism and on remodeling dynamics, which is useful to the study of bone health. During the last 50 years, biological anthropologists have adopted the use of histomorphometry while examining issues specific to human health and evolutionary trends from prehistoric remains. Scientists coming from the medical field have applied histomorphometry in their research as it allows the study of bone changes, useful to describe pathological conditions among these ancient human remains. This paper reflects on some of the research that involves histomorphometric analysis specific to diet and health, forensic anthropology, taphonomic assessment of bone, non-human primate research and biomechanics. The purpose of the paper is to consider past and future applications of bone histomorphometry to enable a discussion which might direct research towards under-explored areas of bone biology. For example, looking at renewed interest in clavicular histology and stimulating investigations that focus on osteocyte density. Additionally, a discussion is offered concerning OPD values used to correlate chronological age to biological age estimations.

Genetic variability of Roma population was shaped by the strong influence of genetic drift and gene flow during the migrations from their ancestral homeland in Indian subcontinent towards Europe. In addition, social stigmatization in many European countries, as a consequence of different cultural heritage and social practices, induced further genetic differentiation and sub structuring within the population. Although many populations genetic studies on European Roma were carried out, the genetic structure of the Serbian Roma has not been described yet, since only the modest number of individuals from this territory was analyzed. The main aim of this study was the characterization of genetic variability of the Roma and the assessment of intrapopulation genetic differentiation based on the analysis of 21 autosomal STR loci of 259 self-identified unrelated individuals from Serbia. Intrapopulation analysis revealed divergence of Roma groups illustrating the effect of the historical events after their arrival on Balkan Peninsula and emphasizing significance of the religious affiliation on admixture with autochthonous population. Genetic distance analysis showed the greatest similarity of the studied population with the Middle Eastern populations, while South Asian and European population were more distant. Our results demonstrate that Roma groups in this region of Balkan Peninsula do not represent completely isolated, but rather admixed populations with different proportion of gene flow with other Roma and non-Roma groups.

Geography is a well-known factor shaping genetic variation in human populations. However, the potential role played by cultural variables remains much understudied. This study investigates the impact of socio-cultural variables on genomic similarity and the saliva microbiome, using data from populations in Lesotho and Namibia. Geographic distance within Lesotho increases genetic differentiation, while shared clan affiliation surprisingly increases it. In Namibia, ethnicity is the predominant factor influencing genetic affinity. Saliva metagenomic data shows a negative correlation between age and alpha diversity, with notable differences in host-interacting taxa and viral load. These findings highlight the role of geography in shaping genetic affinity even at small scales and the complex influences of cultural factors. The saliva microbiome appears primarily affected by unrecorded individual behaviors rather than geographic or cultural variables. At population-level these oral microbiomes reveal insights into some dietary habits, oral health, and also the communal viral load, which appears to have greater incidence in Lesotho possibly related to the long-term effects of the HIV epidemic in the country.

Human nutrition represents a dynamic interplay between biological evolution and cultural development, profoundly shaping dietary practices and health outcomes. This paper traces the dietary evolution of the genus Homo, from practices like foraging, scavenging, hunting, and gathering to the Neolithic transition towards agropastoral subsistence. These changes influenced human biology, evident in genetic adaptations such as lactase persistence and amylase gene copy variation, and reshaped societal structures and population dynamics. Cultural phenomena, including food rituals and dietary norms, further shaped community identities and nutritional habits. However, industrialization and globalization have introduced new challenges, including obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases, driven by processed food consumption and sedentary lifestyles. These issues are exacerbated by ancestral genetic predispositions, such as the "thrifty gene" hypothesis, which links evolutionary adaptations to modern health disparities in specific populations. Advances in nutrigenomics and personalized nutrition provide promising avenues for tailoring dietary interventions to individual genetic profiles, promoting health and preventing chronic diseases. Artificial intelligence (AI) offers innovative tools for diet assessment, tracking, and personalized guidance, presenting opportunities to address global health disparities. However, these technological advancements must navigate ethical concerns, data privacy issues, and cultural sensitivities. By taking into account biological, cultural, and technological perspectives, this study emphasizes the importance of integrating anthropological and nutritional sciences in addressing modern health challenges. It highlights the role of cultural practices in shaping dietary behaviour and advocates for interdisciplinary collaboration to ensure culturally sensitive, equitable nutrition strategies.

Founded in 1894, the Museum "G. Sergi" houses a variety of osteological materials and other collections, including several plaster facial casts from different human populations. This paper investigates this collection, which has been acquired (at least in part) in the framework of Italian colonialism, focusing on expeditions respectively led by Lidio Cipriani and Corrado Gini during the fascist regime. By examining these casts and the colonial missions associated with them, we compare the goals of Cipriani and Gini, uncovering the otherwise forgotten history of these collections, and provide new insights from the perspective of the colonized. While Gini's records include the names of local actors, Cipriani's documentation identifies individuals in only one notable case, that of the "Arabi dello Yemen", a group of Yemenis about to join the Italian askari forces. Globally, many museums are re-evaluating similar samples and it is in this framework that we present these case-studies. In addition, as a collaborative effort by researchers from different fields, this paper aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion about how human facial casts should be displayed in museums.

Many people and organizations misunderstand the concept behind the name Pygmy. This misunderstanding leads them to misinterpretations and erroneous judgements about its use. This article goes back to the origin of the name in order to clarify the meaning that it has today, especially for the Pygmies themselves. The term 'pygmy' originated in ancient Greece where it was employed for a legendary people who, in Greek mythology, were engaged in an unceasing battle against cranes. Although the morphology of the pygmies described by the ancient Greeks cannot be fully characterized, the term 'pygmy' was used for centuries to refer to a population of small stature living close to the Nile. This led scientists and travellers in modern times to refer to populations of small stature living in equatorial Africa as pygmies. The distinction between Pygmies and non-Pygmies in this region matches the presence of two kinds of populations whose identities are defined in contraposition to one another by socio-cultural aspects. Genetic population studies have suggested that the Pygmies split from non-Pygmy populations around 60,000 years BP. Very importantly, the use of the name Pygmy is gratifying to the Pygmies themselves and it appears in the title of almost all Pygmy rights organizations. The name Pygmy thus covers populations sharing a particular phenotype, having a common origin and thus a biological identity, as well as socio-cultural characteristics which are diverse but nevertheless distinguish them from non-Pygmy populations. Furthermore, the name Pygmy has a dual function for the Pygmies themselves, at once asserting their common identity in contraposition to non-Pygmies ("Big-blacks" as they call them) and conveying their claims against those who despise them, who are the same "Big-blacks".

El Castillo cave is a well-known site because of its Paleolithic archaeology and parietal rock art. This paper is focused on the human remains found by V. Cabrera in the Mousterian Unit XX assigned to MIS 4 and early MIS 3. The fossils consist of one upper left second premolar (ULP4), one incomplete proximal hand phalanx, and one partial femoral head. The tooth and the phalanx were assigned to adults, whereas the femoral head belonged to an immature individual due to the absence of fusion traces to the metaphyseal surface. The external morphology and metrical characterization of the Castillo-1466 (ULP4) tooth crown was quantified and compared to the variability of other Neanderthal dental remains and a sample of modern human populations. We also quantified its 3D enamel thickness distribution, its roots morphology, as well as the presence of chipping, and their possible relation to masticatory or paramasticatory activities. Castillo-1466 shows crown dimensions compatible with middle-sized Neanderthal teeth, but with a remarkably thicker enamel than other Neanderthal premolars, such as Marillac 13. The femoral head and the hand phalanx fragment are compared to published values for Neanderthals, although both partial fossils lack diagnostic features precluding any clear taxonomic diagnostic. Therefore, their attribution to Neanderthals is assumed based on the dating of the layers in which they were discovered. El Castillo cave Mousterian fossils represent another contribution to the knowledge of the Middle Paleolithic populations of Northern Spain, where different sites along the Cantabrian mountains yielded several human remains assigned to MIS 4 and early MIS 3.

North Africa is a key area for understanding cultural processes that led to the Acheulean pan - African emergence and expressions and the related hominin population dynamics. Unfortunately, little is known about the early Acheulean in this vast area of the African continent due to the scarceness of archaeological sites in stratigraphic context with reliable chronometric data, human remains, and technological analyses of the lithic industries. Here, we present the first comprehensive techno-economic analysis of the early Acheulean assemblage from Thomas Quarry I - Unit L1 (ThI-L1, Casablanca, Morocco), which is the earliest Acheulean site of North Africa, unambiguously dated to 1.3 Ma. Fieldwork has unearthed faunal remains and a lithic collection containing over 3800 artefacts, which represents one of the largest series for the early African Acheulean. The assemblage is mainly composed of quartzites and to a lesser extent of silicites, both abundantly available near the site. Previously published results of the silicite study revealed two different productions for the extraction of small flakes and of bladelet-like flakes. In this work, we analyse the techno-economic systems of the quartzite assemblage. Two distinct quartzite productions co-occur, one devoted to the manufacture of Large Cutting Tools (LCTs), the other focused on the extraction of small-medium sized flakes. LCTs were usually produced from large cobbles, less often from large flakes detached mainly using the entame core method. The main technical objective was to obtain large pointed tools and, more rarely, large tools with a transversal cutting edge. Results support the existence of a strong synergy between conceptual and operational schemes regulated by the ability to anticipate the final tool morphology and to apply standardized shaping procedures to manufacture recurrent morphotypes. Quartzite small-medium sized flakes were produced by a diversity of flaking methods adapted to the cobble blank morphologies and were not retouched. The results allow to assess that the earliest technical expression of the Acheulean in North Africa is characterised by a high diversification of the stone knapping outcomes, the complexity of the mental templates, and the flexible structure of the operational schemes.

Cortical bone and dentine share similarities in their embryological origin, development, and genetic background. Few analyses have combined the study of cortical bone and dentine to quantify their covariation relative to endogenous and exogenous factors. However, knowing how these tissues relate in individuals is of great importance to decipher the factors acting on their evolution, and ultimately to understand the mechanisms responsible for the different patterns of tissue proportions shown in hominins. The aims of this study are to examine age-, sex-, and ancestry-related variation in cortical bone and dentine volumes, and to preliminary assess the possible covariation between these tissues in modern humans and in five composite Neandertals. The modern analytical sample includes 12 immature individuals from France and 49 adults from France and South Africa. Three-dimensional tissue proportions were assessed from microtomographic records of radii and permanent maxillary canines. Results suggest ontogenic differences and a strong sexual dimorphism in cortical bone and dentine developments. The developmental pattern of dentine also seems to vary according to individual's ancestry. We measure a stronger covariation signal between cortical bone and dentine volumes than with any other dental tissue. A more complex covariation pattern is shown when splitting the modern sample by age, sex, and ancestry, as no signal is found in some subsamples while others show a covariation between cortical bone and either crown or radicular dentine. Finally, no difference in cortical bone volume is noticed between the modern young adults and the five young adult composite Neandertals from Marine Isotopic Stages (MIS) 5 and 3. Greater dentine Cortical bone and dentine (co)variation volumes are measured in the MIS 5 chimeric Neandertals whereas a strong interpopulation variation in dentine thickness is noticed in the MIS 3 chimeric Neandertals. Further research on the cortical bonedentine covariation will increase understanding of the impact of endogenous and exogenous factors on the development of the mineralized tissues.

Since prehistoric times, Italy has represented a bridge between peoples, genes and cultures. Its peculiar geographical position explains why: it is located in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, flanked by the Balkans and the Hellenic Peninsula to the east, Iberia to the west and surrounded by North Africa to the south and central Europe to the north. This makes Italy of extraordinary interest for the study of some different aspects of human diversity. Here we overview current knowledge regarding the relationships between the structure of the genetic variation of Italian populations and the geographical, ecological and cultural factors that have characterized their evolutionary history. Human presence in Italian territory is deeply rooted in the past. Lithic artifacts produced by the genus Homo and remains of Homo sapiens are among the earliest to have been found on the continent, as shown by the lithic industry of Pirro Nord (between 1.3 and 1.6 Mya) and the dental remains of the "Grotta del Cavallo" (between 45 and 43 Kya). Genetic and genomic studies relating to existing and extinct human groups have shed light on the migrations from Europe, Africa and Asia that created the ancient layers of the genetic structure of today's Italian populations, especially before the Iron Age. The important role of isolation (genetic and cultural) in shaping genetic structure is clearly visible in the patterns of intra- and inter-population diversity observed among Italian ethno-linguistic minorities that settled on the peninsula and on the major islands until the 19th century. Finally, selective pressures have likely driven the distribution of originally adaptive variants and haplotypes that now confer protection or susceptibility to major diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease (in northern Italy) and tuberculosis and leprosy (in the south). What emerges is a picture where the combined effects of migration, isolation and natural selection generated by the interplay of geography, environment and culture have shaped a complex pattern of human diversity that is unique in Europe and which goes hand in hand with today's rich animal and plant biodiversity. In a nutshell, scientific evidence and cultural heritage paint Italy as a place with extremely diverse environments where distant peoples have met since the deep past, bringing and sharing genes and ideas.

In this contribution I will review the development of ideas about a recent African origin for our species over the last 50 years, starting from the time of my PhD in the early 1970s. I will examine the instructive and quite different interpretations placed on the 1979 discovery of a partial Neanderthal skeleton associated with a Châtelperronian industry at the rock shelter of St-Césaire in France, and then focus on the crucial years from 1987-1989, including the so-called 'Human Revolution' conference of 1987, and my 1988 Science paper with Peter Andrews: 'Genetic and Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Modern Humans'. Following the historical review, I will assess the status of five proposed models for the evolution of derived Homo sapiens: Recent African Origin (RAO); RAO and Hybridisation (RAOH); Assimilation (AM); Multiregional Evolution (MRE); and Braided Stream (BS). I conclude that a recent African origin model with hybridization (RAOH) is the best supported from the fossil and genetic evidence.

The question of how complex morphologies evolve, given constraints imposed by genetic, developmental and functional factors, has been a topic of inquiry for many decades. In the mid-twentieth century the study of morphological trait covariation, and the implications of this for evolutionary diversification, was developed under the general concept of "morphological integration". Given the polygenic inheritance model underlying quantitative skeletal traits, and the existence of differential pleiotropic effects, it is assumed that variation in the genotype to phenotype map will lead to the emergence of semi-autonomous "modules" that share relatively stronger covariance (integration) among traits within them. Understanding these potential patterns of modularity in the primate skeleton is important for clarifying the seeming inconsistencies presented by "mosaic" morphologies found in fossil taxa, as well as providing hypothetical units of morphological evolution that can be compared across the primate order. A review of the primate skeletal integration and modularity literature was conducted with the aim of assessing (i) the general nature of primate skeletal integration patterns, and (ii) the extent to which any identified modularity patterns are ubiquitous across primates. The vast literature on cranial integration reveals some consistency in suggesting that the face and the neurocranium (and in some cases, the basicranium and vault) form distinct modules, but the intensity of this modular pattern varies across taxa. The much more modest postcranial integration literature suggests that apes show overall reduced covariation among skeletal regions compared with other anthropoid taxa, but the extent to which any identified modularity patterns hold true across primates is still very unclear. While much has been learned about primate skeletal integration in the past two decades, we still need more studies that establish benchmarks as to what constitutes an integrated modular structure, and that empirically test these potential modules across a wider range of primate taxa.

The relationship between anthropology and neuroscience has always been friendly but controversial, because they embrace inclusive common topics (human beings and their brains) although following distinct approaches, often more holistic and speculative in the former field, more reductionist and quantitative in the latter. In recent decades, novel disciplines have been proposed to bridge the gap between anthropology and neuroscience, mostly taking into account their common interest in human evolution. Paleoneurology deals with the study of brain anatomy in extinct species. Neuroarchaeology concerns the study of brain functions associated with behaviours that are of interest according to the archaeological record. Cognitive archaeology investigates the evolution of those behaviours following methods and theories in psychology. These new fields can provide quantitative and experimental support to topics that, to date, have been largely discussed only on a theoretical basis. Nonetheless, working with extinct species necessarily involves many limitations. Consistent theories on the evolution of our cognitive abilities must rely on the integration of different sources of information, on parallel and independent evidence from different fields, and on a proper attitude: openness and caution.

The major genetic divergences among non-Africans took place within a relatively short period of time, between 50 and 40 thousand years ago. These events shaped human diversity worldwide and set the basis for our current understanding of demographic history, patterns of adaptation and genetic burden across human populations. While the global picture appears already set, with the main human expansion Out of Africa inferred to have occurred between 60 and 70 thousand years ago and the main separation between contemporary East and West Eurasian to have taken place at around 40 thousand years ago, several finer details remain unresolved, including the whereabouts of such expansions and the dynamics of their interactions with archaic hominins and the interplay between environmental, cultural and demographic effectors. Here we review the major events that characterize human movements across and beyond Eurasia until the last glacial maximum and, at the end of each paragraph, spell out in italics the major questions that remain unsolved and that may provide major breakthroughs in the field in the upcoming years.

This paper presents an updated view on the morphological and functional significance of the human respiratory system in the context of human evolutionary anatomy. While usually the respiratory system is treated either from a craniofacial perspective, mostly in the context of nasal evolution and air-conditioning, or from a postcranial perspective featuring on overall thoracic shape changes, here we pursue a holistic perspective on the form, function, integration, and evolutionary change of the entire organismal system in hominins. We first present a brief review of the most important morphological structures, their function, and its potential integration and interaction with the nasal cavity and thoracic skeleton. This is followed by an overview of the most important improvements in methods for the comparative study in recent humans and fossil hominins. We then overview and list a compendium of hominin fossil material currently available for the study. We propose four functional categories of hominin respiratory system configurations that differ potentially with respect to size, shape, biomechanics and/or bioenergetics. Finally, we discuss these and speculate on possible ways for future research into an anatomical system that, despite its under-investigated status, is central to the understanding of the form and functions of the hominin organism and its paleobiology.

Of the many critical phases of human evolution, one of the most investigated is the transition from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic with the pivotal bio-cultural substitution of Neanderthals by Homo sapiens in Western Eurasia. The complexity of this over ten thousands years phase raises from the ensemble of evidence ascribed to the diverse adaptations expressed by Neanderthals and the first representatives of our species. In countless archaeological records Neanderthals left clear traces of a cultural variability dotted with innovations in the technology of stone and bone tools, alongside with manifestations in the range of the symbolic sphere. Together with other aspects of daily life, this evidence contributes shedding light on the cognitive aptitudes of those hominins and reassessing gaps in Pleistocene human diversities. Among archaeological contexts, the cave of Fumane in the Monti Lessini (Veneto Pre-Alps, northeastern Italy) is a key site. It is positioned along the potential trajectory of hominins moving into southern Europe from eastern and southeastern regions and includes a finely layered sedimentary sequence with cultural layers ascribed to the Mousterian, Uluzzian, Aurignacian and Gravettian. The ensemble constitutes one of the most complete, detailed and dated continental stratigraphic series from a segment of the late Pleistocene between 50 and 30 ka cal BP in a cave context of Southern Europe. Assessments based on sedimentological and palaeontological record provide indicators for framing Neanderthals in their respective ecological contexts since the late Middle Pleistocene until their demise during MIS3. On-going research is producing data ascribable to the human ecological relations and the interaction with specific natural resources, thus contributing to shed light on the complexity of Neanderthal behavior. Thanks to the high-resolution archaeological record of the earliest appearances of Homo sapiens, Fumane also provides clues to compare life, subsistence, and cultures between these Pleistocene hominins for comprehensive reasonings on our unicity.

Ancient DNA (aDNA) studies have deployed genetic material from archaeological contexts to investigate human dispersals and interactions, corroborating some longstanding hypotheses and revealing new aspects of human history. After drawing the broad genomic strokes of human history, geneticists have discovered the exciting possibilities of applying this method to answer questions on a smaller scale. This review provides an overview of the commonly used methods, both in the laboratory and the analyses, and summarizes the current state of genomic research. It reviews human dispersals across the continents and additionally highlights some studies that integrated genomics to answer questions beyond biology to understand the cultural and societal traits of past societies. By shining a light from multiple angles, we gain a much better understanding of the real shape of the human past.