Supervisor assessments of trainee competence are integral to ensuring that clinical psychology trainees reach competency benchmarks. The commonly used Clinical Psychology Practicum Competencies Rating Scale (CΨPRS) has been shown to elicit inflated ratings of competency. Hence, the aim of this study is to examine whether brief supervisor training reduces ratings by providing objective criteria with which supervisors can assess trainee competency.

In this commentary, I provide a brief background of the meta-experience of emotions, the philosophical and psychological literature on happiness, and further discuss the influence of culture on happiness. The meta-experience of emotions implies that there are primary and secondary emotions (i.e., emotions about emotions), similar to the concept of meta-cognitions. Primary and secondary emotions are closely associated with one's cultural background and happiness. Most scholars throughout history believe that happiness per se cannot be taught. However, it is possible to teach practices that lead to the path toward happiness. Promising strategies include loving-kindness and compassion meditation. These strategies are based on Buddhist teachings, which are deeply rooted in a collectivistic culture. This illustrates the close association between emotions, approaches towards happiness, and cultural background.

The clinical manifestations associated with colds and influenza overshadow the equally important mood and performance impairments. While decreased alertness and increased anxiety can be considered side effects of symptomatology, symptoms alone may not be responsible for the psychomotor and attention deficits of colds and influenza, respectively. An alternative hypothesis, as proposed in this review, suggests that the immune response, in the form of a cytokine cascade, may be responsible for both the physical and psychological symptoms. In particular, patterns of cytokine production for each infection will dictate the symptoms and performance deficits both within and between viruses. This hypothesis can be extended to incorporate infectious mononucleosis, as well as colds and influenza. The efficacy of symptom-based overthe-counter medications is then called into question.

In a review of the literature, very little empirically based research was uncovered to guide the practice of health professionals who need to tell their patients bad news and help them to decide on their preferred treatment option. Various practising styles and guidelines are presented, and ethical and crosscultural challenges discussed. An enormous amount of research still needs to be done to discover the least stressful ways of dealing with these issues in health care settings.

Confidentiality has long been a cornerstone of trust in the professional relationship between psychologists and their clients. Developments in computer technology, litigation, insurance reimbursement schemes, and changing lifestyles are forcing psychologists to reconsider and refine their approach to respecting this important ethical principle. This article review basic concepts on the matter, and discusses these in light of evolving issues in practice, technology, and the law. Some contrasts in legal and ethical aspects of confidentiality between Australia and the United States are discussed. Recommendations for enhancing attention to confidentiality in one's practice are included.

Although the principle of confidentiality in the relationship between psychologists and client has been vaunted, and is emphasised in the Australian Psychological Society's Code of Professional Conduct (the APS code; 1994), the confidentiality of this relationship is circumscribed by the absence of legal protections, the ethical beliefs of psychologists, institutional practices, and the provisions of the APS code itself. Lack of privilege in judicial proceedings, and statutory obligations to report certain types of behaviour, mandate breaches of confidentiality in some circumstances. Ethical beliefs of psychologists may support disclosure, especially where it is believed that there is danger of serious physical harm to the client or others. Multidisciplinary teams and institutional settings require the exchange of information for optimal delivery of services. Recent amendments to the APS code may require disclosure without the client's consent when a client is believed to be suicidal. Such developments, when considered at all, are typically regarded as exceptions to a general obligation of confidentiality. However, discussion of exceptions presupposes agreement on fundamental principle: the significance of, and rationale for, confidentiality in the psychologist-client relationship. It is argued in this paper that the obligation of confidentiality has been assumed rather than vigorously analysed and empirically explored. A critical examination of this obligation is the most appropriate starting point for the rehabilitation of contemporary principles of confidentiality in the psychologist-client relationship.

Two hundred and fifty-six members of the Australian public were surveyed regarding situations in which a psychologist might breach confidentiality and third parties to whom information might be disclosed. There was strong agreement between respondents' expectations about the way in which psychologists would act, and their preferences regarding how psychologists should act. While respondents supported confidentiality within the psychotherapeutic relationship, they clearly distinguished situations in which, and third parties to whom, disclosure could appropriately occur. Disclosure was expected and preferred when a client revealed a murder (planned or confessed), suicide plans, child abuse, or treason, and where the recipients of the information were colleagues of the psychologist or parents of a client younger than 13 years. Compared to nonparents, parents more strongly supported disclosure regarding illegal drug use and child abuse, and believed that parents should have access to a child's records. In general, respondents' view of the way in which psychologists should treat confidentiality issues were consistent with the guidelines prescribed by the Australian Psychological Society in the Code of Professional Conduct (1986).

It is increasingly acknowledged that confidentiality is relative rather than absolute in any counselling relationship. This is particularly the case for minors receiving counselling at school, where third parties such as parents and teachers frequently have access to information about an adolescent client. The Australian Psychological Society's Code of Professional Conduct (1986) states that minors are unable to provide voluntary, informed consent in consulting relationships, although current research does not necessarily support this view. The current study investigated adolescents' attitudes to confidentiality in situations that may commonly arise in school counselling. The study also investigated the third parties to whom adolescents believed information should be disclosed by a counsellor. Respondents were 303 male and 254 female students attending three single-sex nongovernment schools. Ages ranged from 13 to 18 years. Results suggested that the adolescents' attitudes to confidentiality generally corresponded with adult views. Many adolescents wanted more autonomy regarding disclosure of information obtained in a counselling situation than the APS code provides. Parents were the only third party to whom the adolescents generally believed disclosure should be made. There were few age differences, but a wide range of opinions were evident, with female adolescents consistently more strongly in favor of confidentiality than males.

The codes of ethical conduct of the Australian Psychological Society and the American Psychological Association imply that researchers of adolescent depression and suicidal behaviour must plan to intervene to assess risk where a participant in a study indicates an intention to commit suicide. Participants in research of this kind need to be advised of this possibility in advance. The obligation to intervene, and to advise of the possibility of intervention, pose practical and methodological problems for research in this area but do not, it is argued, absolve the researcher of the primary responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the research participant.

There has been increased attention in recent years to the importance of individual privacy and professional confidentiality both in Australia and overseas. At the same time, psychologists' growing research interests in areas such as AIDS, child sexual abuse, and domestic violence have led to new ethical dilemmas over the contract of confidentiality between researchers and their research participants. The present paper discusses a number of issues regarding the ethics of confidentiality in psychological research. Following Bok (1989), the issues are highlighted within the context of four ethical principles that underlie researchers' obligations to preserve confidentiality. These principles are derived from considerations of privacy, loyalty, the pledge of silence, and professional codes of ethical standards. Each of these principles is illustrated with examples taken from recent research. We devote special attention to instances that appear to provide a clash between moral principles.

This essay aims to briefly summarise the collection of articles on confidentiality issues in psychology, and to highlight apparently conflicting opinions about the confidentiality rule. Conflicts are then analysed in terms of competing systems of ethics. Finally, the role for ethics education in psychology education and training is considered.

Although professional counsellors would be aware of the need to maintain confidentiality in their work with clients, the basis and scope of this obligation is generally less well understood. This article examines the issue of counsellor-client confidentiality from a legal perspective, and considers the potential bases of legal liability which counsellors may have with respect to the maintenance of client confidentiality as well as the circumstances under which disclosure of this information will be required or may be permitted. It is contended that the general issue of counsellor-client confidentiality presently poses particular difficulties for counsellors who work primarily with children and adolescents, especially when clinical services are provided directly to adolescents. In such instances, counsellors may be confronted by competing and even conflicting interests, and may be required to exercise judgement in relation to the disclosure of confidential information which has been provided by a minor. Although there is no clear law which directly relates to this area, it is argued that counsellors may presently have a primary obligation to respect the wishes which are expressed by a "mature minor" in relation to the provision of counselling services. It is further argued that awareness of general legal principles which are of relevance to areas of professional practice can provide much assistance to practitioners who could be required to make decisions in the course of their work which may later be examined in the context of legal proceedings.

Fifty-one practising scientists made Q-sorts of 90 statements relating to scientific fraud and impropriety. Principal components analysis identified two major groups. Members of the first group (N=18) seemed to support the standard, or received, view about the nature of science and to interpret scientific fraud and impropriety in terms of the individual shortcomings of deviant scientists. Members of the second group (N=7) seemed to adopt a more critical position about the nature of science and were more likely to construe scientific fraud and impropriety as anticipated aspects of the operation of a human social institution. Some implications of these findings for an understanding of the current debate on scientific fraud and impropriety are considered.