Many of the implications of climate change for Aotearoa (New Zealand) remain unclear. To identify so-far unseen or understudied threats and opportunities related to climate change we applied a horizon-scanning process. First, we collated 171 threats and opportunities across our diverse fields of research. We then scored each item for novelty and potential impact and finally reduced the list to ten threats and ten opportunities through a prioritisation process. Within the 20 items presented in this paper, we uncover a range of climate-related costs and benefits. Unexpected opportunities evolve from economic reorganisation and changes to perspectives. The threats we highlight include the overall failure to interconnect siloed policy responses, as well as those relating to extreme events and feedbacks, as well as pressures that undermine the coherence of society. A major theme of our work is that climate change effects in Aotearoa are likely to transgress the boundaries of research disciplines, industry sectors and policy systems, emphasising the importance of developing transdisciplinary methods and approaches. We use this insight to connect potential responses to climate change with Aotearoa's culture and geography.

Scientific evidence unequivocally shows that human activities cause climate change, but some people still deny it. Using New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study data from 2018 and 2019 ( = 34,733), we examined segmentation profiles regarding beliefs and concern about climate change ('Climate change is real', 'Climate change is caused by humans', 'I am deeply concerned about climate change'), the probabilities of transitioning to and from profiles over time, and the characteristics of individuals in each profile. Five profiles were identified with varying levels of climate change beliefs and concern. The largest profile (60.4% of respondents) had the highest levels of climate change beliefs and concern, while the smallest profile (3.7% of respondents) had the lowest. Over time, more people moved from profiles of lower into profiles of higher levels of climate change beliefs and concern. The profile with the highest levels was the most stable, with members having an 82.7% chance of staying in this profile over time. Compared to this group, members of the profile with the lowest levels of climate change beliefs and concern were more likely to be male, New Zealand European, parents, religious, and to endorse conservative and system-justifying ideologies. We discuss the implications of the findings.

In March, 2019, a trackway of seven footprints was found at a riverbank outcrop of Maniototo Conglomerate Formation in the Kyeburn River, Central Otago, South Island, New Zealand. In this study, we describe this first known occurrence of moa (Dinornithiformes) footprints to be found and recovered in Te Waipounamu/South Island. Footprints of the trackway were ∼46 mm deep, 272-300 mm wide and 260-294 mm in length. An associated separate footprint was 448 mm wide and 285 mm long. Cosmogenic nuclide dating of adjacent overlying beds from the same formation establishes a mean minimum age of burial age for the tracks of 3.57 Ma (+1.62/-1.18 Ma) with a mode of 2.9 Ma, which we interpret to be Late Pliocene, with a conservative age range of Pliocene to Early Pleistocene. The trackway maker is identified as a moa from the Emeidae family, probably from the genus , with a mean mass of 84.61 kg that was travelling at a speed of 2.61 kmh. The single adjacent footprint was made by an individual from the family Dinornithidae, most likely from the genus with an estimated mass of 158 kg. These moa footprints represent the second earliest fossil record of moa.

Pre-Miocene, stem odontocetes are known for their procumbent incisors and their function has been the subject of much speculation. Notable among these were and several related taxa from New Zealand. Though some studies hypothesise the function of these teeth was for thrusting, the here described has unique teeth which might have formed a cage around small fish. These teeth, along with a weak vertex, flexible neck, and the smallest size among its relatives would make it a capable hunter in shallow waters. The addition of along with other taxa to phylogenetic analyses show three broad groups within taxa related to and based on the divergence of the function of their teeth and the possible feeding strategies employed to catch prey.

Changes in global mean sea level are a clear indicator of a warming climate, but local factors including land subsidence or uplift, cause changes in relative sea level that drive shoreline shifts. These local changes and their impact on coastal hazards matter to coastal communities. NZ SeaRise produced relative sea level projections for Aotearoa to include the latest global climate and Antarctic Ice Sheet research and estimates of vertical land movement at high spatial resolution. Research-informed communication to the public and planners included a web-based projections tool supplemented by written and visual narratives, and a media engagement plan. This communication, and analysis of media impact, provided a case study for audience-relevant information on sea-level rise. Information regarding shoreline change and evolving hazards, required for risk assessment, was not included in the NZ SeaRise projections. New research is needed to reduce uncertainty in future Antarctic Ice Sheet contribution to sea level, link changes in sea surface height to our dynamic land surface and enhance communication approaches. Several examples of the required research are presented here but ongoing efforts must refine the timing and magnitude of coastline change, better define coastal hazards and risks, and develop appropriate adaptation strategies for unavoidable climate change impacts.

The changing climate is threatening everything we hold dear, increasing dangers to food production, to the availability of water, to land and to livelihoods across the globe. In the past century, humanity has become the dominant force shaping the climate system, ramping up greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. To halt climate change, emissions of greenhouse gases must be reduced to zero as soon as possible. However, the necessary action has not been forthcoming and the overall response has been painfully slow, for a number of reasons. This special issue of the Journal of the Royal Society Te Apārangi addresses many of these issues, with a focus on Aotearoa New Zealand, looking at how we think about climate change and the nature and pace of our response.

The earliest Miocene (Aquitanian, 23-20 Ma) remains a critically under-sampled 'dark age' in cetacean evolution. This is especially true of baleen whales (mysticetes), Aquitanian specimens of which remain almost entirely unknown. Across the globe, the nature of the cetacean fossil record radically shifts at the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, with mysticetes and some archaic odontocete lineages suddenly disappearing despite the availability of cetacean-bearing rock units. New Zealand is the only place worldwide where this change is not readily apparent, with baleen whales apparently persisting into the earliest Miocene. Whether this is a genuine pattern has so far remained obscured by a lack of biostratigraphic resolution associated with the Oligo-Miocene boundary. Here, we report 23 new strontium (Sr/Sr) dates from shells associated with 16 mysticete and seven odontocete specimens, respectively. Of these, eight fall within the Early Miocene and seven - including five mysticetes - specifically within the Aquitanian. Our findings confirm the unique nature and global importance of the cetacean fossil record from New Zealand, and provide a foundation for investigations into the causes and effects of the Early Miocene cetacean 'dark age'.

Recent research on mysticete fossils from the Late Eocene and Oligocene has revolutionised our understanding of the diversity and evolutionary scenarios for early baleen whales. For example, aetiocetids are a possible, though controversial, lineage that bridges the gap between the toothed and baleen-bearing mysticetes, and eomysticetids show a further transitional step towards the baleen-bearing status, with the presence of non-functional dentition in adults. However, information about the origin of crown mysticetes, including the most recent common ancestor of all extant lineages and its descendants, is critical to further understanding the evolution of baleen whales. The phylogenetic positions of the Oligocene , , , and from New Zealand remain unresolved and problematic, but all four genera show a close relationship with crown mysticetes. The original and subsequent cladistic analyses have consistently revealed a sister relationship between the to grade and crown mysticetes, and has been placed close to the cetotheriids within the crown group. This review aims to stimulate more research on this topic by elucidating the origin of crown mysticetes, which likely experienced a poorly known radiation event during the Oligocene that established the modern lineages.

Eomysticetidae are a clade of early diverging functionally toothless, longirostrine and likely baleen-bearing stem mysticete whales. Eomysticetid fossils are rare but known worldwide from Oligocene strata. The richest assemblage of eomysticetids has been uncovered in New Zealand from the Kokoamu Greensand and Otekaike Limestone (North Otago and South Canterbury regions, South Island). This includes some of the largest known eomysticetids, and , some older and more archaic forms such as , the fragmentary and , and the well-known represented by several well-preserved skulls and mandibles of adults and juveniles. Studies of these New Zealand fossils strongly indicates monophyly of Eomysticetidae and suggest possible skim feeding behaviour, possession of non-functional teeth and baleen, extreme rostral lengthening during growth and peramorphic evolution, rostral kinesis, use of Zealandia as a calving ground, and probable extinction at or near the Oligo-Miocene boundary.

The fossil record of the genus (Lamniformes: Lamnidae) dates to the late Oligocene and has a near global distribution. Today the genus is represented by a single species, the white shark . However, multiple extinct species are recognised in the Cenozoic including , and comb. nov. Here we present the first occurrences of and from New Zealand/Aotearoa, from the South Island/Te Waipounamu. is previously reported from late Miocene deposits in the Pacific basin of North and South America, Asia, and Australia. Whereas has been reported from the Miocene of North America and Asia. One tooth from is reported from the presumed late Miocene of Motunau Beach, North Canterbury, while one upper early Miocene tooth recovered from the Kakahu River, South Canterbury and an earliest Miocene tooth from the Big River mouth, Tasman District are referred to . In addition to being the first reported occurrences of these two species in New Zealand, the teeth of represent some of the earliest occurrences of the taxon as well as its southernmost occurrence.

We report on an articulated fossil boxfish (Tetraodontiformes, Ostraciidae) recently recovered from the Pliocene of the North Island of New Zealand. The specimen was collected from the Tangahoe Formation, a mid-Pliocene (c. 3.0-3.4 Ma) shallow marine deposit, at Waihi Beach, South Taranaki. The fossil boxfish measures 10.7 cm in standard length, with an estimated total length of c. 13-14 cm (the caudal fin is not preserved). The fish is preserved in right lateral view, lying on its side, and has an intact body covering of fused hydroxyapatite plates that rigidly encase the fish, as is characteristic of boxfishes. The plates are hexagonal to subhexagonal in shape and largest close to the dorsal midline. Fossil boxfish have previously been recorded from Northern Hemisphere sites ranging in age from Palaeocene to Quaternary, but not from the Southern Hemisphere. Recent reports note that boxfishes and several other tropical Pacific fish species are now being seen off of northern New Zealand - the Pliocene boxfish from Taranaki, as well as an intriguing addition to New Zealand's paleohistory, may also reflect how the ongoing impact of climate change will return New Zealand to a warmer marine ecosystem - similar to what prevailed during the Pliocene.

Studies involving anatomical description and taxonomy of fossil odontocetes offer insights into their evolutionary history and diversity. This study analyses tusk-like teeth in odontocetes including the description of a new species, , from the Waitaki valley, North Otago, New Zealand. Dental features of , a gracile, longirostrine odontocete with procumbent tusk-like anterior teeth and slightly denticulate cheek teeth, are described in detail. A comparative analysis of tusk-like teeth from New Zealand specimens and from elsewhere in the world was performed allowing a classification of tusk-like teeth in odontocetes and highlighting the differences between true tusks and rooted procumbent teeth. Correlation analyses revealed significant associations between rostrum proportions and tooth crown morphology. This study contributes to the understanding of tusk-like teeth and illuminates their significance in odontocete evolution. expands our knowledge of fossil cetaceans and highlights the importance of New Zealand's exceptional fossil record of odontocetes with tusk-like teeth.

The Late Oligocene is a period of high penguin diversity, following major changes in the marine environment at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary and prior to the emergence of crown penguins in the Miocene. Historically, a large morphological gap existed between the most crownward among the Oligocene penguins from New Zealand and the Early Miocene stem penguins such as from South America. Here we describe a new species that contributes to filling this gap. gen. et sp. nov. is the earliest tiny penguin, overlapping in size with the little penguin . Its distinctive combination of a well-developed proximal end of the humerus and an archaic elbow joint provides clues to the evolution of penguin wings. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that penguin wings evolved rapidly from the Late Oligocene to the Early Miocene, together with the acquisition of morphofunctional and hydrodynamical characteristics that enable the excellent swimming ability of modern penguins. As an indicator of aquatic adaptation, bone microanatomy shows a comparable structure to that of . The appearance of the smallest body size and the evolution of modern wings may have led to the ecological diversity of modern penguins, which confirms the importance of Zealandia in penguin evolution.

The 47 vertebrate type specimens held in the University of Otago Geology Department are catalogued in detail. A short history of the collection is followed by lists of the type specimens under the Classes Actinopterygii, Reptilia, Aves and Mammalia. A fish trace-fossil is included at the end of the Actinopterygii. Where appropriate, the name changes of the genus or species are given in chronological order. The specimens are briefly described, locality and geological age information is provided.

The face of climate action is increasingly young, well informed, and active. But despite the growing rumble of this youth-quake, the New Zealand political system has to date been slow to respond to climate change mitigation. This article will therefore critically explore the apparent paradox between the image of New Zealand as a leading progressive democratic society, and its current response to the climate emergency. In particular, the paper will interrogate this theme from the perspectives of the international critique of New Zealand's current legal and policy response, the dynamic lens of climate change litigation and its potential to influence public policy, and the increasing impact of tikanga Māori as a primary source of New Zealand law and its relational approach to the wellbeing of the environment and the underlying ethic of stewardship. The overall thesis of the paper will be that cumulatively these trends will have the energy to generate an effective response to climate change and mobilise the urgent joined-up action required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and build adaptive capacity within the closing opportunity of the next two decades.

The Kekenodontidae are late-surviving archaeocetes from the Late Oligocene of Southwest Pacific that includes a single-named species, . is a new genus and species of small body-sized kekenodontid from the upper Oligocene (Chattian) Kokoamu Greensand of Otago, South Island, New Zealand. Phylogenetic analyses recover . within a monophyletic Kekenodontidae, forming a clade with an unnamed provisional kekenodontid, OU 22023. Kekenodontids are recovered crownward to basilosaurids and stemward to a paraphyletic group of toothed 'mysticetes' that are excluded from Neoceti. The analyses confirm the identification of kekenodontids as the latest-diverging archaeocetes that persisted into the Late Oligocene. The holotype OU 22394 is a juvenile individual preserving several isolated heterodont teeth with characteristics of deciduous teeth, including unmineralized pulp cavities and cheek teeth with lower-lying triangular crowns that are different from all known kekenodontids. Diphyodonty is known from Eocene archaeocetes but is unknown from geologically younger toothed cetaceans, with monophyodonty being hypothesised for all Neoceti. Inferences of diphyodonty in . would be the first instance in Cetacea from rocks geologically younger than the Eocene and would indicate diphyodonty persisted in some Late Oligocene archaeocetes.

Climate change is being felt across all human and natural systems in Aotearoa New Zealand and is projected to worsen this decade as impacts compound and cascade through natural system and sectoral dependencies. The effectiveness of adaptation is constrained by how fast greenhouse gas emissions are reduced globally, the pace of change, the frequency and progression of impacts, and the capacity of our natural, societal and political systems to respond. We explore how these systems and sectors interact with existing and projected climate change stressors by categorising climate change impacts (Trends and Events) and consequential thresholds (Thresholds), and by grouping systems and sectors by types (Typologies). This approach has identified commonalities and differences between the typologies which are illustrated with examples. Critical constraints and opportunities for adaptation have been identified to guide sector adaptation decision-making and for ongoing adaptation progress and effectiveness monitoring. Constraints are found across all sectors, and opportunities exist to address them through modelling and projections, monitoring frameworks, decision tools and measures, governance coordination and integration of the Māori worldview of the relationship between humans and nature. However, limits to adaptation exist and will increase over time unless all sectors and all nations urgently reduce their emissions.

Albatrosses are among the most intensely studied groups of living birds, yet their fossil record remains sparse. Despite modern albatrosses being more abundant and widespread in the Southern Hemisphere, the vast majority of fossil albatrosses identified to date come from Northern Hemisphere localities. Here, we describe sp. nov., a new albatross species from the earliest Miocene that represents the earliest record of Procellariiformes in New Zealand and the earliest uncontroversial record of the clade Pan-Diomedeidae from the Southern Hemisphere. Phylogenetic analyses support the placement of outside of the clade uniting all extant albatrosses. The new fossil reveals that stem lineage albatrosses were widespread by the onset of the Neogene. Although the humerus of exhibits a short processus supracondylaris dorsalis, this early species may have possessed at least one of the unique ossifications associated with the patagial bracing system present in modern albatrosses.

The remains of a unique fossil bony fish were discovered in late Eocene (39.1-36.7 Ma: NZ Kaiatan stage) mudstone at Burnside near Dunedin, New Zealand in the 1930s and subsequently named and described by Frederick Chapman. He interpreted the type specimen as being a large-scaled relative of the modern of the Gempylidae (Scombroidei: Trichiuroidea), known to be swift, large oceanic predators. However, Chapman is unlikely to have seen all of the fossil, and did not discuss the skull and caudal skeleton. Additional material now allows these to be included in the expanded description herein, including key morphologic features of the fish such as the presence of premaxillary fangs. This study describes the rather complex history of the specimen and re-examines this significant fossil fish in the University of Otago collections, giving a more complete understanding of morphology, paleoecology and relationships. In summary, we suspect represents an ancestral form of gempylid, closely related to the gemfish group, an important Southern Hemisphere macrofossil record from the Eocene seas around Zealandia.

Vertebrate fossils from Aotearoa New Zealand have revealed the global significance of Zealandia on the origins of modern birds, the history of cetaceans during major climatic events of the Cenozoic and the evolution of cartilaginous and ray-finned fish. Internationally important collections of vertebrate fossils are housed in collections across Aotearoa and have attracted researchers from around the world studying evolution, biogeography and climate change. This special issue of the Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand celebrates the vertebrate fossils of Aotearoa by showcasing taonga (treasures) that are significant to global and local vertebrate history.