Poplar spiral gall aphid () forms galls on the petiole in poplars () and mass infestations are frequent in poplar stands, but how these parasite gall infestations can affect the leaf lamina structure, photosynthetic rate and constitutive and stress volatile emissions is unknown. We investigated how the infestation by the petiole gall aphids affects lamina photosynthetic characteristics (net assimilation rate, stomatal conductance), C and N contents, and constitutive isoprene and induced volatile emissions in × . The dry gall mass per leaf dry mass ( / ) was used as a quantitative measure of the severity of gall infestation. Very high fraction of leaf biomass was invested in gall formation with / varying between 0.5-2. Over the whole range of the infestation severities, net assimilation rate per area, leaf dry mass per unit area and N content decreased with increasing the severity of infestation. In contrast, stomatal conductance, leaf dry mass per fresh mass, constitutive isoprene emissions, and induced green leaf volatile (GLV), monoterpene, sesquiterpene and benzenoid emissions increased with increasing the severity of gall infestation. The rates of induced emissions were low and these emissions were associated with methyl jasmonate release from leaf laminas. The data demonstrate that petiole gall infestations lead to major changes in leaf lamina sink-source relationships and leaf water relations, thereby significantly altering lamina photosynthesis. Modifications in stress-induced emissions likely indicated systemic signaling triggered by jasmonate transported from the petiole galls to the lamina where jasmonate elicited a cascade of volatile emission responses. Enhance isoprene emissions and induced volatile emissions can play a major role in indirect defense against other herbivores, securing the food source for the gall aphids. In conclusion, a massive infestation by petiole gall aphids can profoundly modify the foliage photosynthetic performance and volatile emission profiles in poplars.

High-resolution time series of stem radius variations (SRVs) record fluctuations in tree water status and temporal dynamics of radial growth. The focus of this study was to evaluate the influence of tree size (i.e., saplings vs. mature trees) and soil water availability on SRVs. Dendrometers were installed on at an open xeric site and on at a dry-mesic site, and the SRVs of co-occurring saplings and mature trees were analyzed during two consecutive years. The results revealed that irrespective of tree size, radial growth in occurred in April-May, whereas the main growing period of was April-June (saplings) and May-June (mature trees). Linear relationships between growth-detrended SRVs (SSRVs) of mature trees vs. saplings and climate-SSRV relationships revealed greater use of water reserves by mature compared with saplings. This suggests that the strikingly depressed growth of saplings compared with mature was caused by source limitation, i.e., restricted photosynthesis beneath the dense canopy. In contrast, a tree size effect on the annual increment, SSRV, and climate-SSRV relationships was less obvious in , indicating comparable water status in mature trees and saplings under an open canopy. The results of this study provided evidence that water availability and a canopy atmosphere can explain differences in temporal dynamics of radial growth and use of stem water reserves among mature trees and saplings.

Lammas shoots are flushes formed by some woody species later in the growing season. Having less time to develop, tissue formation is suggested to be incomplete leading to a higher peridermal water loss during consecutive months. In this study, we analysed morphological and anatomical parameters, peridermal conductance to water vapour and the level of native embolism in mid-winter and late-winter of lammas shoots and normal spring shoots of the apple varieties 'Gala' and 'Nicoter'. Lammas shoots showed a significantly higher shoot cross-sectional area due to larger pith and corticular parenchyma areas. In contrast, phloem was significantly thicker in spring shoots. No pronounced differences were observed in xylem and collenchyma thickness or mean hydraulic conduit diameter. The phellem of spring shoots was composed of more suberinised cells compared to lammas shoots, which led to a significantly higher peridermal conductance in the latter. The amount of native embolism in mid-winter did not differ between shoot types, but in late-winter lammas shoots were more embolised than spring shoots. Data show that the restricted vegetation period of lammas shoots affects their development and, in consequence, their transpiration shield. This may also pose a risk for winter desiccation.

We applied dendroclimatological techniques to determine long-term stationarity of climate-growth relationships and recent growth trends of three widespread coniferous tree species of the central Austrian Alps, which grow intermixed at dry-mesic sites within a dry inner Alpine environment (750 m asl). Time series of annual increments were developed from > 120 mature trees of and . Calculation of response functions for the period 1911 - 2009 revealed significant differences among species in response to climate variables. While precipitation in May - June favoured radial growth of and growth mainly depended on April - May precipitation. growth was most sensitive to May - June temperature (inverse relationship). Moving response function coefficients indicated increasing drought sensitivity of all species in recent decades, which is related to a decline in soil moisture availability due to increasing stand density and tree size and higher evapotranspiration rates in a warmer climate. While recent trend in basal area increment (BAI) of distinctly declined implying high vulnerability to drought stress, moderately shade-tolerant showed steadily increasing BAI and quite constant BAI was maintained in drought adapted , although at lowest level of all species. We conclude that synergistic effects of stand dynamics and climate warming increased drought sensitivity, which changed competitive strength of co-occurring conifers due to differences in inherent adaptive capacity.

The aim of this study was to investigate bending stiffness and compression strength perpendicular to the grain of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) trunkwood with different anatomical and hydraulic properties. Hydraulically less safe mature sapwood had bigger hydraulic lumen diameters and higher specific hydraulic conductivities than hydraulically safer juvenile wood. Bending stiffness (MOE) was higher, whereas radial compression strength lower in mature than in juvenile wood. A density-based tradeoff between MOE and hydraulic efficiency was apparent in mature wood only. Across cambial age, bending stiffness did not compromise hydraulic efficiency due to variation in latewood percent and because of the structural demands of the tree top (e.g. high flexibility). Radial compression strength compromised, however, hydraulic efficiency because it was extremely dependent on the characteristics of the "weakest" wood part, the highly conductive earlywood. An increase in conduit wall reinforcement of earlywood tracheids would be too costly for the tree. Increasing radial compression strength by modification of microfibril angles or ray cell number could result in a decrease of MOE, which would negatively affect the trunk's capability to support the crown. We propose that radial compression strength could be an easily assessable and highly predictive parameter for the resistance against implosion or vulnerability to cavitation across conifer species, which should be topic of further studies.

Acoustic emission (AE) and radial shrinkage were compared between fully saturated fresh and pre-dried Norway spruce sapwood during dehydration at ambient temperature. Hydraulic conductivity measurements, anatomical investigations on bordered pits and X-ray computed tomography (CT) scans were done to search for possible AE sources other than the breakage of the water columns inside the tracheids. Both fresh and pre-dried specimens showed radial shrinkage due to drying surface layers right from the beginning of dehydration, which induced almost no AE. Whereas no dimensional changes occurred in pre-dried wood thereafter, fresh wood showed a rapid shrinkage increase starting at 25% relative water loss. This dimensional change ceased when further moisture got lost and was even partially reversed. AE of fresh wood showed much higher activity and energy, which is a waveform feature that describes the strength of the acoustic signal. Extremely high single AE energy events were detected at this critical stage of dehydration. After partial recovery from shrinkage, neither dimensional changes nor AE activity showed differences between fresh and pre-dried wood after more than 80% relative moisture loss. Our results suggested that fresh sapwood is more prone to dehydration stresses than pre-dried sapwood. Differences in AE and shrinkage behavior might be due to the weakening or distortion of the pit membranes (cavitation fatigue), pit aspiration, structural changes of the cell walls and micro-checks, which occurred during the first dehydration cycle.

Within a dry inner Alpine valley in the Eastern Central Alps (750 m a.s.l., Tyrol, Austria) the influence of climate variables (precipitation, air humidity, temperature) and soil water content on intra-annual dynamics of tree-ring development was determined in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at two sites differing in soil water availability (xeric and dry-mesic site). Radial stem development was continuously followed during 2007 and 2008 by band dendrometers and repeated micro-sampling of the developing tree rings of mature trees. Daily and seasonal fluctuations of the stem radius, which reached almost half of total annual increment, primarily reflected changes in tree water status and masked radial stem growth especially during drought periods in spring. However, temporal dynamics of intra-annual radial growth determined by both methods were found to be quite similar, when onset of radial growth in dendrometer traces was defined by the occurrence of first enlarging xylem cells. Radial increments during the growing period, which lasted from early April through early August showed statistically significant relationships with precipitation (Kendall τ = 0.234, p < 0.01, and τ = 0.184, p < 0.05, at the xeric and dry-mesic site, respectively) and relative air humidity (Pearson r = 0.290, p < 0.05, and r = 0.306, p < 0.05 at the xeric and dry-mesic site, respectively). Soil water content and air temperature had no influence on radial stem increment. Culmination of radial stem growth was detected at both study plots around mid-May, prior to occurrence of more favourable climatic conditions, i.e. an increase in precipitation during summer. We suggest that the early decrease in radial growth rate is due to a high belowground demand for carbohydrates to ensure adequate resource acquisition on the drought prone substrate.

We determined the temporal dynamic of cambial activity and xylem development of stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) throughout the treeline ecotone. Repeated micro-sampling of the developing tree ring was carried out during the growing seasons 2006 and 2007 at the timberline (1950 m a.s.l.), treeline (2110 m a.s.l.) and within the krummholz belt (2180 m a.s.l.) and the influence of climate variables on intra-annual wood formation was determined.At the beginning of both growing seasons, highest numbers of cambial and enlarging cells were observed at the treeline. Soil temperatures at time of initiation of cambial activity were c. 1.5 °C higher at treeline (open canopy) compared to timberline (closed canopy), suggesting that a threshold root-zone temperature is involved in triggering onset of above ground stem growth.The rate of xylem cell production determined in two weekly intervals during June through August 2006-2007 was significantly correlated with air temperature (temperature sums expressed as degree-days and mean daily maximum temperature) at the timberline only. Lack of significant relationships between tracheid production and temperature variables at the treeline and within the krummholz belt support past dendroclimatological studies that more extreme environmental conditions (e.g., wind exposure, frost desiccation, late frost) increasingly control tree growth above timberline.Results of this study revealed that spatial and temporal (i.e. year-to-year) variability in timing and dynamic of wood formation of Pinus cembra is strongly influenced by local site factors within the treeline ecotone and the dynamics of seasonal temperature variation, respectively.

Hybrid saplings were more reactive to soil water deficit than Japanese and European larch. European larch had hydraulically safer wood and anisohydric behavior, Japanese and hybrid larch showed isohydric strategy.

Several old cultivars, and breeding clones of European pear L. originating from Belgium, England, Sweden, and Switzerland were evaluated for their resistance/susceptibility to fire blight. Studies were carried out during three consecutive years 2007-2009 in the greenhouse of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland. Strain 691 of was used for artificial infection of plants. Genotypes included in this study considerably varied in their resistance to fire blight. The most resistant was the old English cultivar 'Hessle'. The other two genotypes, i.e., 'Gränna Rödpäron' originating from Sweden, and FG 1606 from Switzerland were included in a group of low susceptible ones. The most susceptible were Cra Py H 18, Cra Py V 22 and Cra Py W 14 from Belgium.

The genus includes plant-associated pathogenic and non-pathogenic species. Among them, all species pathogenic to pome fruit trees ( sp. from Japan) cause similar symptoms, but differ in their degrees of aggressiveness, i.e. in symptoms, host range or both. The presence of plasmids of similar size, in the range of 30 kb, is a common characteristic that they possess. Besides, they share some genetic content with high homology in several genes associated with exopolysaccharide production and hence, with virulence, as well as in some other genes. Knowledge of the content of these plasmids and comparative genetic analyses may provide interesting new clues to understanding the origin and evolution of these pathogens and the level of symptoms they produce. Furthermore, genetic similarities observed among some of the plasmids (and genomes) from the above indicated pathogenic species and or , which are epiphytic on the same hosts, may reveal associations that could expose the mechanisms of origin of pathogens. A summary of the current information on their plasmids and the relationships among them is presented here.

Brown spot of pear is a fungal disease producing high economical losses in several pear-growing areas in Europe. Fungicide applications during the growing period either at fixed schedule or delivered according to the BSPcast forecasting system are not enough to control the disease under favorable conditions. New strategies have been introduced to control the inoculum production using sanitation methods. These methods are based on combinations of leaf litter removal during winter and biological control agent applications during late winter, spring and summer. These practices reduce both the inoculum pressure and disease levels. Therefore, the resulting optimized disease management consists of a combination of sanitation methods applied during the whole year with chemical fungicides scheduled according to the BSPcast forecasting model during the vegetative period. It is expected that the control of brown spot could be further refined upon availability of rapid methods for inoculum potential analysis. However, this analysis is difficult due to the variability in pathogenicity within the pathogen population.

The tree constitutes an ecosystem in which microorganisms play an essential role in its functionality. Interactions that microorganisms establish with plants may be beneficial or detrimental and are of extreme importance in the exploitation of trees in agriculture as crop production systems. Fruit trees, especially pomefruit trees including apple, pear and several ornamentals are of great economic importance but its production is affected by several diseases. Fungal and bacterial fruit tree diseases are mainly controlled with chemical fungicides and bactericides, but health and environmental concerns about the use of chemical pesticides have result in strong regulatory actions and have stimulated the development of beneficial microorganisms as microbial pesticides. Up to now, several microorganisms have been registered in different countries and in the EU as biocontrol agents (BCA) covering mainly fire blight, soil-borne fungal diseases and postharvest fruit fungal rot. The key aspects in the success of this technology for disease control are related to biosafety and environmental impact of biocontrol agents, the traceability and fate in the environment and food chain, the improvement by physiological, genetic engineering or the use of mixtures or formulations as well as the industrial production and development of delivery systems for treatment application to trees.

The lack of elevational changes in electrical resistivity in trunks indicated consistent growth and hydraulics across elevations. Though, electrical resistivity tomograms exhibited pronounced temperature-driven seasonal changes.

Transcriptomic analysis of the relationship between gene expression patterns and flavonoid contents in the flower buds of under light-induced conditions, especially the flavonoid pathway genes and transcription factors.

The machine learning algorithm extreme gradient boosting can be employed to address the issue of long data gaps in individual trees, without the need for additional tree-growth data or climatic variables.