The regulation of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) in the United States of America consists of fragmentary rules split between the federal and state governments. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has recognized the complex nature of TENORM regulation but has not issued explicit TENORM rules at the federal level. Some states have enacted their own TENORM statutes and regulations to fill this gap, while others claim the authority to regulate TENORM under their general radiation protection regulations. The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) ruling in West Virginia vs. EPA created a new lens through which environmental regulations should be viewed and may have implications for the regulation of TENORM. This paper presents an overview of West Virginia vs. EPA, the major questions doctrine on which SCOTUS based its opinion, and how it might apply to TENORM regulations at the federal and state levels. Two states, one with explicit TENORM regulations and another with only general radiation protection statutes, are considered in the context of a hypothetical legal challenge to TENORM regulations. The role and impact of West Virginia vs. EPA in administrative law is still to be determined, but it does prompt an opportunity to conduct a new, more thorough review of TENORM regulation at the federal and state level.

The regulation of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material (TENORM) at the state level in the United States of America varies significantly from state to state. Policy surveillance methods and associated technologies have been developed to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of public health policies. Previous research has demonstrated that policy surveillance methods can be applied to state radiation regulations; however, no organization has taken steps to incorporate these results into a permanent database with a continuous data lifecycle program. The first goal of this project aims to apply policy surveillance methods to NORM and TENORM regulations in five southeastern states in the United States with a focus on basic definitions and general licensing requirements. The second goal is to introduce policy surveillance methods to health physicists and act as a blueprint for establishing additional datasets of radiation regulations.

Combining a traditional weather station with radiation monitors draws the public's attention to the magnitude of background radiation and its typical variation while providing early indications of unplanned radiological releases, such as nuclear power plant accidents or terrorist acts. Several networks of combined weather and radiation monitoring sensors exist, but these fail to be affordable for broad distribution. This work involves creating an affordable system to accumulate data from multiple locations into a single open-source database. The data collected should thus serve as a friendly database for high school students. The system is designed around an inexpensive sensor package featuring a cup anemometer, wind direction vane, and tip bucket rain gauge. A Raspberry Pi 4 microcomputer interfaces through RJ11 and RJ45 connectors to these and other sensors. Custom-designed circuits were implemented on printed circuit boards supporting sensor chips for temperature, pressure, humidity, and air electrical resistance. The outdoor board communicates with ultraviolet light, soil moisture, and temperature sensors, relaying data using wired connections indoors where a Raspberry Pi 4 and indoor circuit board are located. The indoor board employs wireless internet protocol to communicate with a homemade Geiger-Mueller counter and a consumer-grade temporal radon monitor. The system employs an internet connection to transfer data to a cloud-based storage system. This enables a website with continuously updated pages dedicated to each established system to display collected data. Weatherproofed fused filament fabricated indoor and outdoor cases were designed. Sensor functions were tested for functionality and accuracy.

In medical physics, rigorous quality assurance and quality control protocols are vital for precise dose delivery applications. In many health physics applications, the allowable uncertainty for various processes is often greater than that of medical physics due to looser safety ties. This results in less demand for quality control and uncertainty analyses, since these may not be needed. However, certain applications can benefit from a comprehensive quality control program, as it may yield important insights, such as air kerma monitoring in dosimetry calibrations for environmental and low-dose applications. By implementing a thorough quality control program tailored to specific contexts and needs, uncertainties associated with dose measurements can be quantified with greater accuracy and reliability. This proactive approach not only ensures the integrity of data collected but also enhances understanding of the measured doses. For these reasons, a comprehensive quality control initiative was implemented following documented failures in a 137 Cs dosimetry calibration irradiator. This involved systematic charge collection using NIST-traceable ion chambers to observe long-term changes. A Phase I quality control protocol was previously implemented, which employed Shewhart control charts and Nelson's rules to analyze various datasets subgrouped under different conditions. This study addresses the development of a Phase II protocol, which focuses more on uncertainty quantification of systematic errors and irradiator changes, and air kerma precision for dosimetry calibrations. A designed experiment was performed to identify how much systematic errors influence the air kerma. Emphasis was placed on stricter quality assurance protocols, continuous data collection, and additional control charts to monitor short-term changes, such as exponentially weighted moving average control charts. A pre-irradiation control process was implemented to verify that the total air kerma met the measurement quality objective and to show how various uncertainties were applied before calibration. This study indicates how uncertainty is applied given observed air kerma measurements from the irradiator. Ongoing efforts aim to streamline the quality control procedure, ensure consistent data collection, and assess its impact on dosimetry applications.

This research evaluates the effectiveness of a large specialized cardiac catheterization laboratory shielding device (SCCLSD) placed perpendicular to the patient compared to traditional shielding methods in reducing occupational exposure to scattered x rays, contributing to the ongoing enhancement of radiation safety in the cardiac catheterization laboratory (CCL) setting. An experimental setup involving an anthropomorphic phantom on the catheterization table simulated radiation scatter from a patient. Measurements were taken systematically at various grid points and heights in the CCL using a Fluke 451P ion chamber while mimicking a real interventional scenario. In-air peak exposure rates were analyzed at head, chest, and waist heights in the anteroposterior (AP) position. Results demonstrated that the SCCLSD provided a superior radiation shadow and effective whole-body radiation exposure reduction compared to conventional shielding devices. Considering that conventional shielding requires staff to wear lead aprons, an effective dose equivalent correction factor was applied for exposure measurements without the SCCLSD. Even after the correction factor, the SCCLSD continued outperforming lead aprons and offered whole-body protection, including the head and arms, which is typically neglected with conventional shielding. The SCCLSD also reduces exposure to the eyes, aligning with lower occupational exposure recommendations from ICRP and NCRP. However, proper CCL staff positioning is important in maximizing the effectiveness of the SCCLSD. Future research avenues may explore exposure rates at different C-arm angles to more completely assess the SCCLSD's impact on occupational exposure.

Objectives: To analyze the effects of normal x-ray inspection, machine washing, and machine drying on thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) measurements during external individual monitoring and to provide suggestions for determining individual monitoring measurements under the mentioned abnormal situations. In this study, we focused on three abnormal situations: x-ray inspection, machine washing, and machine drying, which are common in external individual dose monitoring. We measured and compared the doses from TLD with and without 11, 23, 35, and 50 security checks. We used different radiation sources to expose the TLDs before or after machine washing with or without hot drying. The three radiation sources are natural background radiation, 137 Cs γ rays, and 320 kVp x-rays. We measured 20 TLDs for each situation. The average doses for the TLDs with 11, 23, 35, 50 security checks are 27.7 μGy, 59.7 μGy, 84.1 μGy, and 121.0 μGy, respectively. We measured an average dose of 2.5 μGy per exposure. The doses showed no significant difference between different times of washing with different radiation sources, natural background radiation, 137 Cs, or x-ray exposures. There was also no significant difference between the dose coming from the controlled group, drying at 60 °C and 90 °C for 1 h after exposure to 137 Cs γ rays and 320 kVp x-rays. The common machine drying under the temperature of 90 °C did not affect TLD measured doses.

Alpha DaRT is a new alpha radiation treatment for treating solid tumors and is currently being evaluated through clinical trials worldwide. Being a novel radiation treatment, it is important to discuss the safety considerations and procedures that are needed to ensure safe use of this unique approach. The objective of this article is to provide a set of recommendations-radiation safety best practices that were developed based on operational and clinical experience.

Rapidly identifying individuals who have received internal radiation exposure above action guidelines is crucial for mitigating health risks and addressing public concerns immediately following a radiological event involving the dispersal of radioactive materials. This study describes a novel triage method using a conventional Geiger-Mueller (GM) detector to select those individuals from the large group of persons who may have received an intake of radioactive material at levels corresponding to one Clinical Decision Guide (CDG). The triage method involves placing a portable GM detector against the lower anterior torso of a sitting person as they bend over to surround the detector with their body. The response of the GM detector is evaluated using a new, specially designed anthropometric phantom that simulates combined tissues of the lower thorax and gastrointestinal (GI) tract and is fabricated with a tissue substitute material that matches the overall radiological properties of human tissue present in this body region. The phantom has four separate layers of tissue substitute material with ports to accommodate a single GM detector at the center and one or more sealed radioactive sources that can be arranged to characterize the detector response for a variety of source distributions, including a "hot spot." In this study, the response of a Ludlum Model 133-4 GM detector was evaluated using sealed sources of 232Th and 137Cs to determine the measurement efficiency for a quantity of activity present in the abdomen within a few hours post-intake equivalent to 1 CDG. Results demonstrate that the Quick Sort triage procedure using a single GM detector placed against the abdomen of a person can reliably detect internal deposition resulting from an intake equivalent to 1 CDG for 232Th or a significantly lower activity of 137Cs within a few hours following a radiological incident. The evaluation was performed over a wide range of photon energies, so the Quick Sort triage procedure is expected to be suitable for most fission products distributed uniformly within the abdomen or as a single "hot spot."

This paper investigates the link between gaps in emergency responders' notions of mental model regarding radiation and risk and their effectiveness in responding to radiological incidents. Particularly, this work focused on exploring themes that emerged in prior work related to improper understanding and application of knowledge concepts related to radiation risks and Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) scenarios (Leek et al., 2024b). The research uses a quantitative approach to correlate various thematic elements, such as responders' confidence levels, comprehension, and application of radiation risk principles, with the quality of the emergency response score gained through a virtual reality simulation. The results underscore a strong effect of responders' confidence level on response quality scores. Additionally, the study identifies that improper understanding of knowledge concepts and incorrect application of radiation risk and RDD concepts are factors that detract from the quality of response, especially the tendency to overestimate health risks associated with a 25-rem (0,25 Sv) dose and to misapply principles of radiation risk. The implications of this research are significant for the development and refinement of training programs for hazardous materials (HAZMAT) technicians and other emergency responders. The findings suggest the need for a comprehensive review of current training methodologies to address the identified deficiencies that had impacts on the quality of response. The findings provide a foundation for reshaping training priorities and operational readiness, driving the development of training that is both grounded in empirical evidence and that directly addresses the knowledge gaps influencing response quality. The methodological framework developed and employed, including the quality scoring system and the Expected Mental Model State (EMMS) Diagnostic Matrix, also hold potential for broader application in future investigations, extending to diverse types of responders and emergency scenarios.

Background: In operating theatres, diagnostic radiography is used to capture images during surgical operations. With the growing use of fluoroscopy, there are concerns about increased radiation exposure to healthcare workers such as doctors and nurses. Thus, assessing HCWs' knowledge and adherence to radiation protection is crucial to prevent overexposure, radiation-related health issues, and ensure patient safety. Objective:The study aimed to assess the knowledge of non-radiation HCWs regarding radiation protection and determine the level of adherence to radiation protection in two theaters. Methods: A quantitative descriptive research methodology was used. Data collection involved a questionnaire, and participants were selected through a simple random sampling method. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Results: Fifty-eight non-radiation HCWs participated. Most (77.6%) were female with nurses comprising the largest demographic (62.1%). Most participants (53.4%) lacked prior education in radiation protection. Concerningly, 70.7% did not use dosimeters during theater radiography, which is a requirement for radiation protection. No significant association was found between participants' allocated hospital and the level of knowledge, but a significant association (p = 0.027) was found between participants' allocated hospital and adherence levels. Conclusion: The findings suggest inadequate knowledge and adherence to radiation protection. Therefore, education on radiation protection must be mandated, and measures should be taken to enforce adherence.

After some consumer products indicated elevated levels of 232Th progeny by gamma-ray spectrometry, a microwave digestion and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) procedure was implemented for the direct assay of 232Th content to ensure compliance with Federal regulations and guidelines. Levels of 232Th were determined by ICP-MS based on standard calibration using a 205Tl internal standard. The method had a method detection limit (MDL) of 0.15 Bq g-1 and a lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 0.65 Bq g-1 for 232Th, making it a suitable confirmatory method following gamma-ray spectrometry. The 232Th activity concentration calculated from the ICP-MS results ranged from 2.0-3.4 Bq g-1 for the kinesiology tape samples and 20 Bq g-1 for the silicone ion bracelet. The VARSKIN+1.0 software program was used to calculate the shallow dose equivalent of ionizing radiation from 232Th and its progeny from the ICP-MS results. The skin dose to the consumer wearing the kinesiology tape ranged from 0.48-1.6 mSv y-1. The skin dose to the consumer with constant wear of the silicone ion bracelet was estimated to be 17 mSv y-1. Although 232Th may be determined indirectly by assay of high abundance gamma rays produced by its progeny, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) requires the direct assay of 232Th for confirmatory analysis. We found this ICP-MS method to be a rapid 232Th confirmatory technique compared to a chemical separation followed by alpha spectrometry procedure.

Many medical facilities across the United States use ionizing-radiation-producing machines and radioactive materials for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes on a regular basis. While institutions are required to ensure full-term fetal doses are below the regulatory limit, clear guidance on how pre-declaration fetal doses should be estimated is not available. This paper provides a process that can be used to estimate the pre-declaration fetal dose and provides a predictive screening tool for licensees to use to recommend workload adjustments prior to actual fetal dosimetry results that could exceed the institutions derived investigation levels. The evaluation process presented herein serves as a guide for medical licensees when performing fetal dose evaluations for declared pregnant workers.

This work investigates the low photon radiation dose (≤50 mSv) response of commercially available radiochromic films as a potential field dosimeter that could be used by the Canadian Armed Forces to complement their existing personal radiation dosimeters. The films were exposed to various photon energies from x-ray devices and radioisotopes (cesium-137, cobalt-60, and americium-241), and their radiation signal was read using three methods: net optical density, UV/visible spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. A complimentary film dosimeter for field usage should, for military use, display a visual color change and detect doses ≤50 mSv. Given the film's radiochromic properties, it was determined that the net optical density method was the most optimal read-out method, which ascertained a minimum detection dose limit of 4.5 mSv under exposure to a clinical orthovoltage operated at 100 kVp. The film presented an overall linear relationship between net optical density and radiation dose; however, they also portrayed a photon energy-dependent response between 0-100 mSv. Overall, the radiochromic films presented a real-time visual dose signal that could be interpreted rapidly in a mobile laboratory and possessed the ability to detect photon doses ≤50 mSv below the vendor's recommended limits, making it a suitable option as a complementary, disposable, military dosimetric tool. Future work includes the investigation of the film's response under multi- and unknown source environments and environmental-dependent factors such as UV/sunlight exposure and extreme temperatures.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers establishes exposure reference levels (ERLs) for electric fields (E-fields) (0-300 GHz) and both induced (IIND) and contact currents (ISC) (<110 MHz) in its standard, IEEE Std C95.1™-2019 (IEEE C95.1). The "classical" scenarios addressed in IEEE C95.1 include a free-standing, grounded "reference" person (IIND) or an ungrounded reference person in manual contact with an adjacent grounded conductor (ISC), each exposed to a vertically oriented E-field driving the currents. The ERLs for current from 100 kHz to 110 MHz were established to limit heating in the finger (from touch), ankle (IIND), and wrist (ISC from grasp contact), specifying the 6-min average specific absorption rate (SAR, W kg-1) as the dosimetric reference limit (DRL); whole-body E-field ERLs are 30-min averages. The DRLs were established assuming a default "effective" local cross-section (9.5 cm2) and consistent with a composite tissue conductivity of ~0.5 S m-1. A previous publication described the misalignment of the ERLs for E-fields with the ERLs for IIND (which extends to ISC) and also proposed a ramped E-field ERL from 100 kHz to 30 MHz. For the frequency range 100 kHz to 110 MHz, this paper proposes temperature increase (ΔT) in ankle and wrist as the preferred effect metric associated with IIND and ISC; applying the E-field ERLs as surrogates for limits to these currents; and adopting the proposed ramp. The analysis of ΔT is based on the tissue mix in realistic anatomic depictions of ankle and wrist cross-sections; relevant tissue properties posted online; published tissue perfusion data; and anthropometric data on a large sample of male and female adults in the US military, allowing an estimate of effects over a range of body size. To evaluate ΔT versus frequency and time, the Penne bioheat equation was adapted with convective cooling from arterial blood as the lone cooling mechanism. The analysis revealed that IINDs and ISCs induced by ERL-level E-fields produce SARs in excess of the local DRLs (in some cases far exceed). Calculations of time to ΔT of 5 °C, reflective of a potentially adverse (painful) response, resulted in worst-case times for effects in the ankle on the order of minutes but on the order of 10s of s in wrist. Thus, compliance with the E-field ERL, as assessed as a 30-min whole-body average is incompatible with the time course of potentially adverse effects in ankle and wrist from IIND and ISC, respectively. Further analysis of the relevant exposure/dose scenarios and consensus of stakeholders with a multi-disciplinary perspective will enable the development of a revised standard, practical from a compliance perspective and protective of all persons.

An electret detector is a piece of dielectric material film charged or polarized by a specific charging method to induce a quasi-permanent electric field. Electret films perform unique characteristics for production and applications in many areas of science and technology, especially in health physics dosimetry. A charged electret detector, when placed in an ionized environment, collects negative or positive ions depending on its original charging state, which reduces its original charge. The number of charges reduced in the ionized field is usually proportional to the absorbed radiation dose. In this paper, the state-of-the-art information on the type of electrets, production methods, some applications in particular in health physics dosimetry, and relevant concepts are reviewed.

This article addresses the evolving state of lutetium-177 radiopharmaceutical therapies in Italy, focusing on the importance of the definition of patient management practices regarding the approved treatments based on [177Lu]Lu-DOTATATE for neuroendocrine tumors and [177Lu]Lu-PSMA-617 for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Italian medical facilities are facing new challenges with the increase in the demand for such therapies while transitioning from restrictive hospitalization requirements to more flexible outpatient options. Therefore, four management strategies are described here, varying from immediate discharge after the administration to 24-h hospitalization, and their environmental and radiation safety implications are evaluated through simple models aimed at assessing the effective doses on the local population and wastewater purification plant workers. Results show that, while higher effective doses may be caused by an immediate discharge-based modality, they remain within acceptable limits, particularly when dealing with a smaller number of patients. Prolonged hospitalizations guarantee superior radiation safety levels but might not be sustainable with the expected increase in patient volumes in the future.