Access to credit and information and communication technology (ICT) plays a pivotal role in enhancing the practices of small-scale sugarcane farmers, impacting their financial, social, and economic wellbeing. However, many small-scale farmers need help accessing these resources, thereby affecting their ability to generate sustainable income. This study aimed to assess the factors influencing the adoption of ICT and access to credit and their subsequent impact on small-scale farmers' income.

South Africa faces the triple burden of malnutrition, high poverty levels, unemployment, and inequality. "Wicked problems" such as these require innovative and transdisciplinary responses, multi-stakeholder coordination and collaboration, managing complex synergies and trade-offs, and achieving sustainable outcomes. Through qualitative content analysis of national and provincial sector-based policies, we explored the interlinkages between the agriculture, environment, and health sectors in South Africa in the context of sustainable food and nutrition security and the extent to which these interlinkages are integrated into policy and planning. A systemic analysis of the review outcomes was performed to identify its main learning outcome, the in the policy process. The nature of feedback loops was identified, and a leverage point was suggested. The review highlighted that policymakers in the agriculture, environment and health sectors are aware of, and have understood, the relationships among the three sectors. They have also made attempts to address these interlinkages through collaboration and coordination. Unfortunately, this has been met with several challenges due to fragmented sector-specific mandates and targets and a lack of resources for integrated solutions. This creates implementation gaps and unintended duplication of activities, leading to poor service delivery. Transitioning to sustainable and healthy food systems will only be possible after these gaps have been closed and implementation optimization has been achieved. Focusing on meta-level problem-framing, functional collaboration through transdisciplinary approaches, and integrated targets are critical to successful policy implementation and progressive realization of national goals related to sustainable food and nutrition security, unemployment, poverty, and inequality.

High crop productivity has the potential to improve the food and nutrition security status of not only smallholder farmers but also households in general. However, smallholder farmers operate in a dynamic environment whereby their crop production is affected by various factors that hinder it from lessening food insecurity and malnutrition in rural areas. The study investigated the determinants of crop productivity and its effect on household food and nutrition security status in South Africa.

The water, energy, land and food (WELF) nexus has been touted as a cross-sectoral systems approach that presents an opportunity to address the grand challenges related to poverty, unemployment, inequality and climate change, especially in the global South. However, as with any other developmental approach, the WELF nexus needs to mainstream gender, which often lies at the heart of poverty, unemployment, and inequality in sub-Saharan Africa. Access to water, energy, land and food is gendered, and so are livelihood strategies and climate change responses. Inequitable access to these resources, gender inequalities, socio-economic vulnerability and cultural norms contribute to women's susceptibility to the impacts of climate change and limit their ability to harness opportunities arising from it. Reducing women's vulnerability to the impacts of climate change in SSA and improving equity in natural resource access and resource use efficiencies will require transformation of gender relations and the active participation of both men and women in decision-making processes. Moreover, policies and interventions that cater to the WELF nexus need be updated to be more gender-aware and sensitive, as this will also contribute to addressing Sustainable Development Goal 5, in addition to Goals 1, 2, 6, 7, and 15.

An erosion of indigenous and traditional foods in the Global South has dramatically changed the global food system in the last 50 years. Reinvigorating these crops and the agro-biodiversity that they represent could provide benefits for healthier and more sustainable food systems. In South Africa, it has been proposed that studying indigenous plants more extensively and focussing on innovation to include them as mainstream foods on people's plates could improve food and nutrition security. With this background, this paper aims to contribute to addressing this challenge by researching sorghum () to identify the opportunities for innovating around sorghum as a healthy food and resilient crop. The paper traces sorghum through various encounters across the South African food system. The results point at clear areas where policy interventions could bolster the sorghum value chain. These include zero-rating VAT on sorghum products, investing more extensively in research and marketing across diverse stakeholders, raising awareness about the health benefits of sorghum and using public procurement as a way of instigating a market for novel sorghum products. The outcomes of a successful sorghum innovation programme could improve smallholder farmers' livelihoods, make a healthy food more accessible to South Africans and develop a local market for innovative products that utilize a crop that is resilient to projected climatic changes.

India is endowed with several indigenous foods (IFs), that hold special cultural significance among local and ethnic caommunities, yet no attempts have been made till date to systematically compile their nutritive values. As per FAO's recent mandate on creation of " IFs have received renewed global recognition for their potential to contribute to improved food security while enhancing biodiversity across the world. Hence, the useful properties of wild IFs require proper study and documentation in order to bridge the gap between scientific evidence generation and indigenous peoples' ancestral knowledge. For this purpose, we conducted a literature search in two scientific databases: PubMed and Google Scholar, between July 2020 and December 2021, to identify studies reporting nutritive values and/or antinutrient content of IFs (not included in Indian food composition database), consumed by Indian indigenous communities. A total of 52 Indian research articles were included, from which data was selected and extracted, to create a compendium on nutrient ( = 508) and antinutrient ( = 123) content of IFs, followed by computation of antinutrient-to-mineral molar ratios for 98 IFs to predict their mineral bioavailability. Maximum nutritive values were available for green leafy vegetables ( = 154), followed by other vegetables ( = 98), fruits ( = 66), cereals ( = 63), roots & tubers ( = 51) and nuts and legumes ( = 36). Several IFs seen to have better nutritional content than conventional foods and were found to be rich (i.e., >20% Indian recommended dietary allowances per reference food serve) in iron (54%), calcium (35%), protein (30%), vitamin C (27%), vitamin A (18%), zinc (14%) and folate (13%). Some IFs displayed high levels of antinutrients, however, anti-nutrient-to-mineral molar ratios were found to be low (for mainly leafy vegetables, other vegetables, and roots and tubers), thus indicating high mineral bioavailability. Hence, efforts are desirable to encourage the inclusion of these nutritionally superior IFs into the usual diets of indigenous communities. The IF database collated in our review can serve as a resource for researchers and policymakers to better understand the nutritional properties of region-specific IFs and promote them through contextual food-based interventions for improved dietary quality and nutrition outcomes in indigenous population of India.

The COVID-19 pandemic has globally jeopardized food security, with heightened threats for the most vulnerable including smallholder farmers as well as rural, indigenous populations. A serial cross-sectional study was conducted to document effect of COVID-19 pandemic on food environment, agricultural practices, diets and food security, along with potential determinants of food systems resilience, among vulnerable smallholder farmer households in indigenous communities of Santhal, Munda, and Sauria Paharia of Jharkhand state, India. Telephonic household surveys were conducted in two phases i.e., lockdown and unlock phase to assess the impact of the pandemic on their food systems and agricultural practices. Market surveys were conducted during the unlock phase, to understand the impact on local informal markets. Secondary data on state and district level food production and Government food security programs were also reviewed. For data analysis purpose, a conceptual framework was developed which delineated possible pathways of impact of COVID-19 pandemic on food environment, food security and food consumption patterns along with factors that may offer resilience. Our findings revealed adverse effects on food production and access among all three communities, due to restrictions in movement of farm labor and supplies, along with disruptions in food supply chains and other food-related logistics and services associated with the pandemic and mitigation measures. The pandemic significantly impacted the livelihoods and incomes among all three indigenous communities during both lockdown and unlock phases, which were attributed to a reduction in sale of agricultural produce, distress selling at lower prices and reduced opportunity for daily wage laboring. A significant proportion of respondents also experienced changes in dietary intake patterns. Key determinants of resilience were identified; these included accessibility to agricultural inputs like indigenous seeds, labor available at household level due to back migration and access to diverse food environments, specifically the wild food environment. There is a need for programs and interventions to conserve and revitalize the bio-cultural resources available within these vulnerable indigenous communities and build resilient food systems that depend on shorter food supply chains and utilize indigenous knowledge systems and associated resources, thereby supporting healthy, equitable and sustainable food systems for all.

Smallholder farmers encounter countless challenges that not only restrict them from maximizing market opportunities but also limit their access to the markets. This paper aims to achieve a thorough understanding of the factors that influence the market participation of indigenous crops by smallholder farmers while also analyzing the extent of market participation in South Africa. An analyzable sample size of 1,520 was used for the study. Household commercialization index (HCI), -test, description analysis, and a double hurdle model with quasi-maximum likelihood fractional response model were employed to analyze the commercialization and extent of commercialization among indigenous crops by smallholder farmers in South Africa. The study demonstrated that a farmer's decision to participate in the market is highly dependent on gender, off-farm income, access to market information, and a family member being infected by HIV. Factors such as household size and access to the market had statistical significance in the extent of market participation by smallholder farmers. While we recommend the need to intensify appropriate training for farmers and extension workers involved in the area of indigenous crops, it is also important that indigenous crops are given the necessary considerations by the government and research institutions so that their demand in the market could increase. There is a need to develop a clear support plan for the few farmers that have decided to be involved in the farming of indigenous crops even though they are not highly marketable. On the other hand, there is also a need for consumer awareness campaigns in South Africa, on the income and nutritional benefits of indigenous crops.

Livestock value chains globally are increasingly dualistic, with integrated market-leaders co-existing with comparatively disadvantaged small producers who, nevertheless, support rural livelihoods and food access, and can also contribute to more resilient supply chains. The South African broiler value chain provides a highly illustrative case study. The purpose of this study is to identify potential leverage points for policy intervention to support small and emerging producers in the South African broiler value chain, and to discuss the strengths and limitations of system dynamics approaches to promote inclusive food value chains. This study develops a causal loop diagram (CLD) based on semi-structured stakeholder interviews and policy documents. The main challenges, key variables and causal relationships between them are systematically identified. Variables are coded, generalised and graphically represented, and entry points for intervention and their links to existing policies are mapped. The challenges faced by smallholders in the context of our study can be characterised, using a CLD, as a set of interlinked and reinforcing dynamics which perpetuate existing disadvantages and reinforce duality in the value chain. Key policy entry points have been identified that could be targeted by a coordinated policy package, including: Direct support for infrastructure investment and input access through grants, subsidies or other policies; credit and liquidity provision for day-to-day expenses; creation of aggregation mechanisms for both inputs and outputs; regulations or initiatives that directly target the relationship of farmers with the commercial segment to improve access to day-old-chicks and, finally, training in business and technical skills. Although most of these interventions have been addressed at some point, implementation has been fragmented, failing to fully consider their complementary nature, thus undermining effectiveness. Existing approaches to consensus building and stakeholder participation in system dynamics research can present challenges when it comes to engaging with complex policy processes and issues of conflict of interest that are relevant in the context of smallholder promotion and equitable food systems, but there are promising avenues for addressing. Despite some methodological challenges, we find that there is considerable scope for system dynamics approaches to inform policy for smallholder promotion, even in contexts characterised by complex policy processes.

Climate change poses severe threats to the social, cultural, and economic integrity of indigenous smallholder subsistence farmers, who are intricately linked with their natural ecosystems. Sauria Paharia, a vulnerable indigenous community of Jharkhand, India, are smallholder farmers facing food and nutrition insecurity and have limited resources to cope with climate change. Eighteen villages of Godda district of Jharkhand inhabited by Sauria Paharia community were randomly selected to conduct a mixed methods study. In 11 out of 18 study villages, we conducted focus group discussions (FGDs) to examine the perception of this indigenous community regarding climate change and its impact on agroforestry and dietary diversity. In all 18 villages, household and agricultural surveys were conducted to derive quantitative estimates of household food consumption patterns and agroforestry diversity, which were triangulated with the qualitative data collected through the FGDs. The FGD data revealed that the community attributed local climatic variability in the form of low and erratic rainfall with long dry spells, to reduced crop productivity, diversity and food availability from forests and waterbodies. Declining agroforestry-produce and diversity were reported to cause reduced household income and shifts from subsistence agricultural economy to migratory unskilled wage laboring leading to household food insecurity. These perceptions were supported by quantitative estimates of habitual food consumption patterns which revealed a predominance of cereals over other food items and low agroforestry diversity (Food Accessed Diversity Index of 0.21 ± 0.15). The adaptation strategies to cope with climate variability included use of climate-resilient indigenous crop varieties for farming, seed conservation and access to indigenous forest foods and weeds for consumption during adverse situations and lean periods. There were mixed views on cultivation of hybrid crops as an adaptation strategy which could impact the sustained utilization of indigenous food systems. Promoting sustainable adaptation strategies, with adequate knowledge and technology, have the potential to improve farm resilience, income, household food security and dietary diversity in this population.

Environmental contamination is a fundamental determinant of health and well-being, and when the environment is compromised, vulnerabilities are generated. The complex challenges associated with environmental health and food security are influenced by current and emerging political, social, economic, and environmental contexts. To solve these "wicked" dilemmas, disparate public health surveillance efforts are conducted by local, state, and federal agencies. More recently, citizen/community science (CS) monitoring efforts are providing site-specific data. One of the biggest challenges in using these government datasets, let alone incorporating CS data, for a holistic assessment of environmental exposure is data management and interoperability. To facilitate a more holistic perspective and approach to solution generation, we have developed a method to provide a common data model that will allow environmental health researchers working at different scales and research domains to exchange data and ask new questions. We anticipate that this method will help to address environmental health disparities, which are unjust and avoidable, while ensuring CS datasets are ethically integrated to achieve environmental justice. Specifically, we used a transdisciplinary research framework to develop a methodology to integrate CS data with existing governmental environmental monitoring and social attribute data (vulnerability and resilience variables) that span across 10 different federal and state agencies. A key challenge in integrating such different datasets is the lack of widely adopted ontologies for vulnerability and resiliency factors. In addition to following the best practice of submitting new term requests to existing ontologies to fill gaps, we have also created an application ontology, the Superfund Research Project Data Interface Ontology (SRPDIO).

Food systems face growing challenges to meet targets of Zero Hunger (SDG 2), and South Africa is no exception given its triple burden of malnutrition, foodborne disease outbreaks, and threats of climate change to food production. Broiler meat is South Africa's most affordable meat option, supporting household food and nutrition security. Although considered healthier and less environmentally harmful than ruminant meat, it is not without food safety risks and environmental impacts. This research aimed to present the foremost commercial broiler system narratives in South Africa, around targets of SDG 2, and to discuss key considerations for policymakers. Twenty-nine key informants and stakeholders, purposively selected to cover a wide range of opinions, participated in semi-structured interviews. Transcripts underwent a qualitative framework analysis. Results showed a highly efficient system, dominated by a small number of interlinked large-scale actors, vulnerable to competition from cheaper imports, yet pressurized to maintain high food safety and environmental impact standards, with a price-sensitive consumer base. Existing policies lack integration and enforcement capacity, and are undermined by siloed government departments, and mistrust and power struggles between public and private sectors. We propose removal of silo walls, and trust building through participatory policy development, with collaborative and transformative public-private partnerships that are designed to build capacity to deliver sustainable solutions.

Agriculture is a significant contributor to anthropogenic global warming, and reducing agricultural emissions-largely methane and nitrous oxide-could play a significant role in climate change mitigation. However, there are important differences between carbon dioxide (CO), which is a stock pollutant, and methane (CH), which is predominantly a flow pollutant. These dynamics mean that conventional reporting of aggregated CO-equivalent emission rates is highly ambiguous and does not straightforwardly reflect historical or anticipated contributions to global temperature change. As a result, the roles and responsibilities of different sectors emitting different gases are similarly obscured by the common means of communicating emission reduction scenarios using CO-equivalence. We argue for a shift in how we report agricultural greenhouse gas emissions and think about their mitigation to better reflect the distinct roles of different greenhouse gases. Policy-makers, stakeholders, and society at large should also be reminded that the role of agriculture in climate mitigation is a much broader topic than climate science alone can inform, including considerations of economic and technical feasibility, preferences for food supply and land-use, and notions of fairness and justice. A more nuanced perspective on the impacts of different emissions could aid these conversations.

Food production has seen various advancements globally in developing countries, such as India. One such advancement was the green revolution. Notably, the World Bank applauds the introduction of the green revolution as it reduced the rural poverty in India for a certain time. Despite the success of the green revolution, the World Bank reported that health outcomes have not been improved. During the post-green revolution period, several notable negative impacts arose. Exclusive studies were not conducted on the benefits and harms before the introduction of the green revolution. Some of such interventions deviate from the natural laws of balance and functioning and are unsustainable practices. To avoid the adverse effects of some of these developments, a review of these interventions is necessary.

Traditional crop species are reported to be drought-tolerant and nutrient-dense with potential to contribute to sustainable food and nutrition security within marginal production systems under climate change. We hypothesized that intercropping maize landraces ( L.) with bambara groundnut ( (L.) Verdc.), together with optimum management strategies, can improve productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) under climate change. Using an ex-ante approach, we assessed climate change impacts and agronomic management options, such as plant ratios, and plant sequences, on yield and WUE of intercropped maize landrace and bambara groundnut. The Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) model was applied over four time periods; namely past (1961-1991), present (1995-2025), mid-century (2030-2060) and late-century (2065-2095), obtained from six GCMs. Across timescales, there were no significant differences with mean annual rainfall, but late century projections of mean annual temperature and reference crop evaporation (ET) showed average increases of 3.5°C and 155mm, respectively. By late century and relative to the present, the projected changes in yield and WUE were -10 and -15% and 5 and 7% for intercropped bambara groundnut and maize landrace, respectively. Regardless of timescale, increasing plant population improved yield and WUE of intercropped bambara groundnut. Asynchronous planting increased yield and WUE for both maize landrace (5 and 14%) and bambara groundnut (35 and 47%, respectively). Most significant improvements were observed when either crop was planted 2-3 months apart. To reduce yield gaps in intercrop systems, low-cost management options like changing plant populations and sequential cropping can increase yield and WUE under projected climate change. To further increase sustainability, there is a need to expand the research to consider other management strategies such as use of other traditional crop species, fertilization, rainwater harvesting and soil conservation techniques.

While the Food Safety Modernization Act established standards for the use of surface water for produce production, water quality is known to vary over space and time. Targeted approaches for identifying hazards in water that account for this variation may improve growers' ability to address pre-harvest food safety risks. Models that utilize publicly-available data (e.g., land-use, real-time weather) may be useful for developing these approaches. The objective of this study was to use pre-existing datasets collected in 2017 ( = 181 samples) and 2018 ( = 191 samples) to train and test models that predict the likelihood of detecting and pathogenic markers () in agricultural water. Four types of features were used to train the models: microbial, physicochemical, spatial and weather. "Full models" were built using all four features types, while "nested models" were built using between one and three types. Twenty learners were used to develop separate full models for each pathogen. Separately, to assess information gain associated with using different feature types, six learners were randomly selected and used to develop nine, nested models each. Performance measures for each model were then calculated and compared against baseline models where concentration was the sole covariate. In the methods, we outline the advantages and disadvantages of each learner. Overall, full models built using ensemble (e.g., Node Harvest) and "black-box" (e.g., SVMs) learners out-performed full models built using more interpretable learners (e.g., tree- and rule-based learners) for both outcomes. However, nested models built using interpretable learners and microbial data performed almost as well as these full models. While none of the nested models performed as well as the full models, nested models built using spatial data consistently out-performed models that excluded spatial data. These findings demonstrate that machine learning approaches can be used to predict when and where pathogens are likely to be present in agricultural water. This study serves as a proof-of-concept that can be built upon once larger datasets become available and provides guidance on the learner-data combinations that should be the foci of future efforts (e.g., tree-based microbial models for pathogenic ).

Plants deploy a variety of chemical and physical defenses to protect themselves against herbivores and pathogens. Organic farming seeks to enhance these responses by improving soil quality, ultimately altering bottom up regulation of plant defenses. While laboratory studies suggest this approach is effective, it remains unclear whether organic agriculture encourages more-active plant defenses under real-world conditions. Working on the farms of cooperating growers, we examined gene expression in the leaves of two potato () varieties, grown on organic vs. conventional farms. For one variety, , we found significantly heightened initiation of genes associated with plant-defense pathways in plants grown in organic vs. conventional fields. Organic fields exhibited lower levels of nitrate in soil and of nitrogen in plant foliage, alongside differences in communities of soil bacteria, suggesting possible links between soil management and observed differences in plant defenses. Additionally, numbers of predatory and phloem-feeding insects were higher in organic than conventional fields. A second potato variety, , which is generally grown using fewer inputs and in poorer-quality soils, exhibited lower overall herbivore and predator numbers, few differences in soil ecology, and no differences in gene-activity in organic and conventional farming systems. Altogether, our results suggest that organic farming has the potential to increase plants' resistance to herbivores, possibly facilitating reduced need for insecticide applications. These benefits appear to be mediated by plant variety and/or farming context.

Although forests and forest-based ecosystems have been shown to influence health and sustainable diets, there is limited evidence on how deforestation affects the current nutrition transition and the double burden of malnutrition. We examined the relationship between deforestation and the individual- and household-level double burden of malnutrition in 15 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.

There is a need for science-based tools to (i) help manage microbial produce safety hazards associated with preharvest surface water use, and (ii) facilitate comanagement of agroecosystems for competing stakeholder aims. To develop these tools an improved understanding of foodborne pathogen ecology in freshwater systems is needed. The purpose of this study was to identify (i) sources of potential food safety hazards, and (ii) combinations of factors associated with an increased likelihood of pathogen contamination of agricultural water Sixty-eight streams were sampled between April and October 2018 (196 samples). At each sampling event separate 10-L grab samples (GS) were collected and tested for , , and the and genes. A 1-L GS was also collected and used for enumeration and detection of four host-associated fecal source-tracking markers (FST). Regression analysis was used to identify individual factors that were significantly associated with pathogen detection. We found that codetection [Odds Ratio (OR) = 4.2; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.3, 13.4] and isolation (OR = 1.8; CI = 0.9, 3.5) were strongly associated with detection of ruminant and human FST markers, respectively, while spp. (excluding ) was negatively associated with log levels (OR = 0.50; CI = 0.26, 0.96). isolation was not associated with the detection of any fecal indicators. This observation supports the current understanding that, unlike enteric pathogens, is not fecally-associated and instead originates from other environmental sources. Separately, conditional inference trees were used to identify scenarios associated with an elevated or reduced risk of pathogen contamination. Interestingly, while the likelihood of isolating appears to be driven by complex interactions between environmental factors, the likelihood of isolation and codetection were driven by physicochemical water quality (e.g., dissolved oxygen) and temperature, respectively. Overall, these models identify environmental conditions associated with an enhanced risk of pathogen presence in agricultural water (e.g., rain events were associated with isolation from samples collected downstream of dairy farms; = 0.002). The information presented here will enable growers to comanage their operations to mitigate the produce safety risks associated with preharvest surface water use.

Cultured/clean/cell-based meat (CM) now has a near two decade history of laboratory research, commencing with the early NASA-funded work at Touro College and the bioarts practice of the Tissue Culture and Art project. Across this period the field, or as it is now more commonly termed, the "space," has developed significantly while promoting different visions for what CM is and can do, and the best mechanisms for delivery. Here we both analyse and critically engage with this near-twenty year period as a productive provocation to those engaged with CM, or considering becoming so. This paper is not a history of the field, and does not offer a comprehensive timeline. Instead it identifies significant activities, transitions, and moments in which key meanings and practices have taken form or exerted influence. We do this through analyzing two related themes: the CM "institutional context" and the CM "interpretative package." The former, the institutional context, refers to events and infrastructures that have come into being to support and shape the CM field, including university activities, conferences, third sector groups, various potential funding mechanisms, and the establishment of a start-up sector. The latter, the interpretative package, refers to the constellation of factors that shape or assert how CM should be understood, including the various names used to describe it, accounts of what it will achieve, and most recently, the emergent regulatory discussions that frame its legal standing. Across the paper we argue it is productive to think of the CM community in terms of a first and second wave. The first wave was more university-based and broadly covers the period from the millennium until around the 2013 cultured burger event. The second wave saw the increasing prevalence of a start-up culture and the circuits of venture capital interest that support it. Through this analysis we seek to provoke further reflection upon how the CM community has come to be as it is, and how this could develop in the future.

Improved greenhouse gas (GHG) emission efficiency of production has been proposed as one of the biggest potential advantages of cultured meat over conventional livestock production systems. Comparisons with beef are typically highlighted, as it is a highly emissions intensive food product. In this study we present a more rigorous comparison of the potential climate impacts of cultured meat and cattle production than has previously been made. Warming impacts are evaluated using a simple climate model that simulates the different behaviours of carbon dioxide (CO), methane (CH) and nitrous oxide (NO), rather than relying on carbon dioxide equivalent (COe) metrics. We compare the temperature impact of beef cattle and cultured meat production at all times to 1000 years in the future, using four synthetic meat GHG footprints currently available in the literature and three different beef production systems studied in an earlier climate modelling paper. Cattle systems are associated with the production of all three GHGs above, including significant emissions of CH, while cultured meat emissions are almost entirely CO from energy generation. Under continuous high global consumption, cultured meat results in less warming than cattle initially, but this gap narrows in the long term and in some cases cattle production causes far less warming, as CH emissions do not accumulate, unlike CO. We then model a decline in meat consumption to more sustainable levels following high consumption, and show that although cattle systems generally result in greater peak warming than cultured meat, the warming effect declines and stabilises under the new emission rates of cattle systems, while the CO based warming from cultured meat persists and accumulates even under reduced consumption, again overtaking cattle production in some scenarios. We conclude that cultured meat is not climatically superior to cattle production; its relative impact instead depends on the availability of decarbonised energy generation and the specific production systems that are realised.