This paper describes the development of a proposed best-evidence model of care (MoC) and program logic (PL) for supported accommodation (SA) for people released from prison. Evidence from a systematic review, interviews with clients of SA, and consultation with service providers were synthesized to develop a draft MoC that was embedded into a PL. The MoC and PL were refined in a workshop with researchers and SA providers. The MoC comprised five best-evidence core components to be standardized across any SA, operationalized by flexible activities that need to be determined by services to suit their circumstances. The PL comprised client needs that the program targets, a rationale for why core components would be effective and appropriate process and outcome measures. The development and uptake of a best-evidence MoC and clearly defined PL will help engender a larger and more rigorous SA evidence-base, and improve outcomes for people released from prison.

This study aims to explore the behavioral manifestation of sadism in females involved in sexual crimes. The sample includes 24 female sex offenders for which sadism was assessed with the SeSaS. To conduct a gender-based comparison analysis, we conducted a random selection of 100 sadistic male offenders. Bivariate comparisons and multidimensional scaling analysis were used to determine whether behavioral manifestation and dimensions of sadism are different in female sex offenders. Results showed that sadism in women manifests itself differently from male offenders and practical implications are discussed.

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) among adolescents is a prime public health concern worldwide. Research found that IPV victimization and peers' IPV perpetration could increase the likelihood of IPV perpetration. In contrast, healthy partner attachment, forgiveness, shame management, and family harmony could serve as protective factors for IPV. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the risk and protective factors of IPV perpetration among adolescents in Hong Kong. The present study recruited 1,815 full-time secondary school students in Hong Kong aged 11 to 19 years. Healthy partner attachment, forgiveness, shame management, and family harmony were negatively correlated with IPV perpetration. IPV victimization and peers' IPV perpetration were positively correlated with IPV perpetration. Specifically, peers' IPV perpetration partially mediated the effect of IPV victimization on IPV perpetration. Thus, the effectiveness of intervention programs targeting IPV could be enhanced by resolving the traumatic experience of IPV victimization and promoting positive peer networks and support.

Nearly all theoretical approaches and therapies to criminal thinking and behavior have been reductionist, meaning that they focus on a part or a subsystem of a system or a supra-system. While these reductionist theories and therapies have provided, and continue to provide, valuable information and rehabilitation, they offer a limited view of criminality and rehabilitation as a consequence of reductionism. Using general systems theory (GST), this article presents an integrated and interdisciplinary theoretical approach to criminal thinking and behavior. This article posits that criminality can be better understood, prevented, and treated using GST.

To reduce the overrepresentation of people with behavioral health conditions in jails, jurisdictions have implemented evidence-based programs/policies (EBPPs) and treatments (EBTs). Using survey data from 519 U.S. counties, the present study classifies and evaluates the impact of strategies used to implement EBPPs and EBTs. Exploratory factor analysis identified four implementation approaches (i.e., clusters of strategies) which counties utilize to different extents depending on their population size: Relationship-Building among agencies (α = .911), infrastructural Capacity-Building (.788), developing Quality Programming (.880), and establishing Shared Definitions of key terms (.913). Relationship-Building and Shared Definitions were significant predictors of increased county-level availability of EBPPs and EBTs. These findings indicate that approaches focusing on interagency collaboration appear especially impactful. However, strategies that require more resources (viz. Capacity-Building) are underutilized. For smaller and/or rural counties with limited resources, an initial emphasis on interagency collaboration approaches can yield positive outcomes, as these require less initial investment and appear especially versatile.

Living in recovery housing can improve addiction recovery and desistance outcomes. This study examined whether retention in recovery housing and types of discharge outcomes (completed, "neutral," and "negative" outcomes) differed for clients with recent criminal legal system (CLS) involvement. Using data from 101 recovery residences certified by the Virginia Association of Recovery Residences based on 1,978 individuals completing the REC-CAP assessment, competing risk analyses (cumulative incidence function, restricted mean survival time, and restricted mean time lost) followed by the marginalization of effects were implemented to examine program outcomes at final discharge. Residents with recent CLS involvement were more likely to be discharged for positive reasons (successful completion of their goals) and premature/negative reasons (e.g., disciplinary releases) than for neutral reasons. Findings indicate that retention for 6-18 months is essential to establish and maintain positive discharge outcomes, and interventions should be developed to enhance retention in recovery residents with recent justice involvement.

Since the publication of the fifth edition of the , identity impairment has become a diagnostic criterion for all personality disorders. The current study examined the occurrence of identity dimensions, clinically relevant identity impairments and personality pathology, and associations between these constructs in 92 forensic patients and 139 healthy controls. Patients showed higher levels of almost all identity dimensions, identity impairments, personality disorders, and almost all maladaptive personality traits than controls. Various identity dimensions were associated with consolidated identity as well as identity impairments in both groups. Both patients and controls with high ruminative exploration and identity malfunctioning showed more personality pathology. Different associations between identity functioning and particularly antisocial and borderline personality disorder showed to be stronger in patients than in controls. Our results highlight the importance of identity impairment as a crucial criterion to assess and treat personality pathology in forensic patients.

This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Ellis's rational-emotional approach on criminal thinking and law-evasion in male prisoners. A quasi-experimental design utilizing pretest, post-test, and follow-up test and waiting-list control groups was conducted. Thirty male prisoners were selected by purposeful sampling and randomized into experimental and waiting list control groups. Participants of experimental group received 12 sessions of Ellis's rational-emotional approach intervention; and all participants answered to PICTS-L-SF and ABAWS as dependent variables at 3 time points (pretest, post-test, and 1 month follow-up). A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to analyze the data. Results showed criminal thinking and law-evasion in experimental group, as compared to control, at post-test phase was significantly decreased ( < .05); and improvement of dependent variables in the follow-up phase has also been continued ( < .05). Therefore, REBT can be beneficial for reducing criminal and illegal thoughts and behaviors among prisoners.

Juvenile delinquency is a serious societal problem with detrimental physical and mental health effects for both victims and offenders. To prevent onset of delinquent behavior or keep it from escalating in frequency and seriousness, effective prevention is imperative. Since the family entails the primary context in which juvenile development takes place, families have a pivotal role in the prevention of juvenile delinquency. This special issue aims to highlight new findings on the role of family factors in the explanation of juvenile delinquency, to increase fundamental knowledge on the impact of family risk and protective factors on juvenile delinquency to inform prevention efforts. It presents findings of six studies with varying methodological designs, including longitudinal and cross-sectional designs using cohort data, network analyses, and genetically informed designs. Together, these studies (1) advance our understanding of the interrelatedness of (family) risk and protective factors in explaining juvenile delinquency; (2) provide more insight in the link between family factors and delinquency in two relatively new areas: the field of online delinquent behavior and the developmental period of emerging adulthood; and (3) increase knowledge on (the effects of) family involvement in preventive programs and interventions. The contributions advance our knowledge about the complex interplay of risk and protective factors contributing to juvenile delinquency, and underscore that families and parents matter in the development and prevention of juvenile delinquency.

This study examines the changes in clinical risk factors among individuals treated in Dutch Penitentiary Psychiatric Centers (PPCs). Using data from 874 patients with diverse psychiatric disorders, clinical risk factors were assessed at admission and discharge. Slight but significant improvements were observed in most risk factors, particularly psychotic symptoms, over an average stay of approximately 6 months. Patients with psychotic or substance use disorders showed the most improvement, while those with mood, personality, or developmental disorders showed minimal change. The study highlights the positive impact of PPCs' structured, secure environment and specialized treatment, especially for psychotic disorders. It also underscores the complexity of treating patients with high rates of comorbidity. The findings suggest that the duration of stay does not significantly predict the improvement in most clinical risk factors. Future research should explore specific diagnostic clusters and their impact on treatment outcomes in PPCs.

This study aimed to report the effect of a 6-week light-active versus moderate-active physical activity intervention embedded in a multimodal day treatment program on selected measures of cognitive control (i.e., response inhibition, error processing, and cognitive interference) and trait impulsivity. A randomized controlled design was implemented, including male multi-problem young adults (aged 18-27) assigned to either light-active ( = 12) or moderate-active physical activity lessons ( = 11). A repeated measures design was used to examine treatment effects between the two groups over time on response inhibition, error processing, and cognitive interference (measured respectively with a Go/NoGo task, a Flanker task, and the Stroop) and trait impulsivity (measured with the Dutch Baratt Impulsiveness Scale). Cognitive control, but not trait impulsivity, improved over time. Specifically, enhancements in inhibition and reduced cognitive interference were observed after 6 weeks. Error processing did not improve, but we did observe improved performance on an error-processing task. No interaction with physical activity intensity was found, suggesting similar treatment effects regardless of intensity. Results should be interpreted with caution due to several limitations, including the small sample size. Overall, due to current limitations (i.e., physical activity embedded in a larger treatment program, small sample size at follow-up, and low intervention adherence), it is not possible to draw any definite conclusions. However, the current findings contribute to a growing body of evidence suggesting potential benefits of physical activity (embedded in a multi-modal day treatment program) in the enhancement of cognitive control deficits in at-risk populations, independent of exercise intensity.

We use international survey data recently collected among adults in six countries (Ukraine, Guatemala, Pakistan, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the United States) to examine the global variations in interpersonal violent behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic. We find that pandemic-related stress is significantly associated with violent behavior in most countries. Depression emerges as a significant predictor of violence across all countries and as a mediator between pandemic stress and violent behavior in multiple* contexts. On the other hand, negative affect and alcohol use predict violent behavior only in non-Western contexts. We provide policy implications focused on prevention and reduction of violence cross-nationally during public health crises.

This article revisits an ongoing dialogue between the co-authors, examining their divergent perspectives on whether the art of serial killers was used to perpetuate their psychopathic cycles after their murderous sprees were interrupted, or whether the art-particularly a piece done by one serial killer, Glen Rogers-reflects remorse and redemption. The two art therapists draw from their own clinical and professional experiences to argue their respective outlooks. After explaining what art therapy is, re-examining the concept of murderabilia, and underscoring psychopathy, this article provides an in-depth evaluation of two art pieces done by the serial killer through of their viewpoints. Ultimately, while neither author completely changed their overall conclusions, elements from both sides of the argument were found relevant. Ultimately, this article emphasized the chaotic and messy connections between art and violence, yet through new perspectives explored on the complexities and motivations within the mayhem, mutual understandings emerged.

Shiite Muslims are one of the most influential ethnic minorities in Afghanistan. It appears that they are more victims of violence than other population groups in Afghanistan. On the other hand, the victimization rate in society is one of the most critical issues in criminology. Being victimized can lead to property loss, psychological trauma, and even death. Sensitive ethnic minorities are particularly pronounced in these challenges, especially in traditional societies such as Afghanistan. Therefore, the victimization rate and its influential factors among Shiite Muslims in Afghanistan need to be carefully analyzed. This is a survey study whose statistical population includes all residents of District 13 of Kabul, 285 of whom were selected using a structured questionnaire designed by the researcher and a multistage cluster sampling method. In addition, a multiple-choice Likert scale was used to measure the dependent and independent variables. The study's results indicate that more than 75% of the respondents and, in the past 5 years, more than 80% of their friends and family members have been victimized. In addition, respondents reported that the overall average probability of victimization over the next 10 years is 3.41 (the probability rate ranged from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 5). Women were more likely to be victimized than men, with average victimization rates of 1.38 and 1.24, respectively (the probability rate ranged from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 2). There was also a significant positive correlation between victimization and other variables such as age, gender, marital status, education level, and economic status.

Psychopathy has been linked to insensitivity to negative affect as well as to a self-regulatory deficit. However, studies on these associations rarely involve real-life behavioral data. Using a theory-based content analysis of offense descriptions in criminal verdicts, the affective and regulatory processes that male German prison inmates ( = 109) displayed during criminal norm-violations were coded. Their PCL-R scores were split up into the interpersonal-affective (F1) and the lifestyle-antisocial (F2) factors. As expected, F1 was associated with positive (as opposed to negative) activation affect during criminal behavior (τ = .32,  < .001), while F2 was not. In contrast, F2 was associated with impulsive reactivity (τ = .14,  = .03), while F1 was not. No differential association was found with angry emotionality. Overall, the bifactorial nature of the PCL-R psychopathy construct seems to be reflected in psychological processing during real-life criminal behavior. This might indicate differential criminogenic processes.

An increasing number of studies has studied the role of procedural justice for reducing recidivism in the probation context. The objective of this study is to contribute to existing knowledge by examining (a) whether people on probation alter their perceptions of probation officer procedural justice over time and (b) the extent to which changes in procedural justice relate to recidivism. This study utilized longitudinal data from 326 adults who were released from Dutch (pre-trial) detention centers and who had contact with the Probation Service. Using the reliable change index, our findings showed that a majority of people on probation changed their procedural justice perceptions over time, which suggested that perceptions of fairness and respect are malleable. Unchanged perceptions of probation officer procedural justice were related to self-reported recidivism, while the likelihood of recidivism did not differ between respondents with decreased and increased perceptions.

Job stress is a critical factor of concern in police work across the world. While frustrations, exhaustion and emotional burnout in work places, particularly as they relate to police job, have been academically emphasized in more advanced climes, they are marginally addressed in less developed societies like Nigeria. Thus, this paper examines the psychological and physical impacts of job stress, workload, and burnout among police officers in Nigeria. Using a nation-wide cross-sectional survey involving 528 police personnel, this paper notes that the police in Nigeria work longer hours than normal, including working under tensions with poor logistics that expose them to dangers on regular basis. This increases their level of frustrations, exhaustion and emotional burnout in work places besides greatly impacting their service delivery. To ensure effective performance of the police in an atmosphere of increasing complex crime networks, therefore, the study recommends clear strategies for improving police wellbeing.

The current study explored the relations between patient characteristics and psychopathic traits in predicting treatment involvement. We rated treatment involvement using detailed archival clinical files of 218 individuals committed to the Massachusetts Treatment Center (MTC). Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) scores had been rated from a previous study on the same sample. Overall, PCL-R Facets 2 and 4 significantly predicted decreases in treatment involvement, suggesting the characteristics associated with these facets have the most disruptive effects on treatment involvement. Exploratory analyses were also conducted assessing the relations between the PCL-R facets and the individual treatment involvement components. Whereas Facet 2 significantly predicted lower levels in all three individual treatment involvement components, Facet 4 only significantly predicted lower levels in two, highlighting the differentiating effects of these facets. Identifying the components that have either positive or negative effects on treatment involvement can allow clinicians to tailor treatments to optimize treatment involvement and outcome.

Justice-involved individuals who reach the end of their full prison sentence no longer benefit from the supervision and rehabilitation services offered by probation or parole. Some of these individuals, who have been assessed to be a high risk for sexual and violent reoffending and deemed to pose a significant violence risk in the community if released, are placed on a judicial order in Canada, and police are asked to supervise and manage the risk of these individuals. In the current study, the files of 45 high-risk, justice-involved individuals, who completed their sentences, were released from a Canadian prison into the province of Alberta, and supervised by police under a judicial order, were reviewed for the presence of criminogenic and non-criminogenic needs over the first year of release. The associations between these needs and proximal reintegration outcomes were examined. Our findings revealed that basic needs and responsivity issues were prevalent in the early part of supervision; however, these factors were unrelated to proximal reintegration success. In contrast, criminogenic needs were prevalent and associated with poorer reintegration. This study reinforces the role that police can play in monitoring and addressing criminogenic needs with the goal of reducing recidivism and employing the help of non-police supports to address non-criminogenic needs.

Women who use violence represent one of the fastest growing groups within the Australian prisoner population, including Aboriginal women who are more likely to be incarcerated than non-Aboriginal women for violent crimes. Many incarcerated women report histories of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and intimate partner violence. This exploratory study examines baseline data from a sample of 167 women in 3 Western Australia women's prisons enrolled in a gender-specific violent behavior program. It describes their exposure to intimate partner violence, head injury, and childhood adversities. Overall, 94% of women had experienced at least one childhood adversity (median 6), and 94% reported being a victim of physical violence by a current or former intimate partner. Aboriginal women were more likely than non-Aboriginal women to report that a family member was incarcerated as a child ( = .001). There was an association between an increased number of ACEs and head injury with a loss of consciousness ( = .008). Overall, these results present a harrowing picture of childhood exposure to adversity and violence in adulthood. Successful rehabilitation of women incarcerated for violent crimes should be cognizant of the histories of extreme violence endured by most of these women.

With drug offenders making up a large portion of cases in the criminal justice system, efforts to reduce recidivism among this population has been a sizable topic within research. Within this literature, drug courts continue to be shown to be an effective method of dealing with substance use offenders. The current study seeks to examine whether drug courts are similarly effective in treating White and Native American offenders. To do so, a quasi-experimental study with a matched comparison group is used to compare the 1- and 2-year recidivism rates of White and Native drug court participants. Results indicate that there are significant demographic differences between the two groups which lead to higher recidivism rates among Native American participants. However, once demographic and other control variables are accounted for, recidivism rates are not significantly different. Further implications of these findings are discussed in the conclusion.

The crime rates in urban centers are rising. The psychological impact of crime can range from distress to longstanding mental health impairment. Despite the rising crime rates and psychological impact on victims, little research has been conducted on older adult crime victims' mental health. In this manuscript we describe the profile of older adult crime victims in New York City referred for mental health services, their rates of depression, and the preliminary outcome data from a brief therapy intervention (PROTECT) targeting depression among victims. Building on prior research demonstrating the efficacy of PROTECT for depressive symptom reduction in elder victims, the present study hypothesized elder victims who completed PROTECT therapy would demonstrate clinically meaningful depression symptom reduction as measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Additionally, it was hypothesized that these clinically significant depression symptom reductions would be demonstrated regardless of sex, gender, victimization type, victimization frequency, or living status. The results demonstrate that 67.7% (21/31) of participants had a clinically significant reduction in PHQ-9 scores (5 points) upon completion of PROTECT. There were no significant group differences in clinically significant depression symptom reduction, suggesting that PROTECT is an effective intervention for a diverse sample of elder crime victims. Future research should focus on the mental health impact of crime against older adults and explore reductions in anxiety and PTSD symptoms among crime victims. Through our partnerships we aim to bridge the divide between victim service providers, and mental health service providers to assist victims to recover, heal, and thrive.

A systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis was performed (28 studies and 313 effect sizes) on the relation between residential group climate (i.e., safety, atmosphere, repression, support, growth, structure) and antisocial behavior, including aggression and criminal recidivism. A systematic search was conducted in PsychINFO, ERIC, and OVID Medline up to February 2023. Results showed a small but significant association ( = .20) between residential group climate and antisocial behavior, equivalent to a 23% reduction of antisocial behavior in all clients receiving care in a residential facility with a therapeutic group climate. Moderator analyses showed that experienced safety was more strongly related to antisocial behavior ( = .30) than the other dimensions of group climate (.17 <  < .20), while the effect size was somewhat larger for adults ( = .24) than for youth ( = .15). We conclude that residential facilities should consider safety as a priority and should involve clients in a positive process of change through the development of a therapeutic environment and delivery of evidence-based treatment, addressing their needs from the perspective of rehabilitation.

The relationship between schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) and violent offending has long been the subject of research. The present study attempts to identify the content of delusions, an understudied factor in this regard, that differentiates between violent and non-violent offenses. Limitations, clinical relevance, and future directions are discussed. Employing a retrospective study design, machine learning algorithms and a comprehensive set of variables were applied to a sample of 366 offenders with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder in a Swiss forensic psychiatry department. Taking into account the different contents and affects associated with delusions, eight variables were identified as having an impact on discriminating between violent and non-violent offenses with an AUC of 0.68, a sensitivity of 30.8%, and a specificity of 91.9%, suggesting that the variables found are useful for discriminating between violent and non-violent offenses. Delusions of grandiosity, delusional police and/or army pursuit, delusional perceived physical and/or mental injury, and delusions of control or passivity were more predictive of non-violent offenses, while delusions with aggressive content or delusions associated with the emotions of anger, distress, or agitation were more frequently associated with violent offenses. Our findings extend and confirm current research on the content of delusions in patients with SSD. In particular, we found that the symptoms of threat/control override (TCO) do not directly lead to violent behavior but are mediated by other variables such as anger. Notably, delusions traditionally seen as symptoms of TCO, appear to have a protective value against violent behavior. These findings will hopefully help to reduce the stigma commonly and erroneously associated with mental illness, while supporting the development of effective therapeutic approaches.

The mechanism(s) through which child contact can lead to more positive mental health and romantic relationship outcomes among incarcerated fathers are not sufficiently studied. The present study tests whether the associations between frequency of child contact and later psychological distress and conflict in romantic relationships are mediated by perceived social support. Self-reported longitudinal data from a sample of incarcerated men who participated in a fatherhood education program ( = 2,096) were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Variables were assessed pre- and post-program participation. As hypothesized, more frequent child contact was associated with greater perceived social support, which predicted reduced psychological distress and reduced partner conflict. There were significant indirect effects of child contact on psychological distress and partner conflict via perceived social support. The findings may inform policies aiming to help incarcerated fathers to better manage psychological distress and conflictual relationships, preparing them for a more successful return to society.

The facilitation of domestic abuse perpetrator programs (DAPPs) by mixed gender co-facilitation pairs brings different facilitator perspectives and enables the modeling of egalitarian and respectful male-female relationships. This study analyzed 22 video and audio recordings of community-based DAPP groups featuring male participants, and male and female facilitators. Using thematic analysis, we aimed to understand how facilitators engaged participants and whether the facilitator's gender affected this. We found an asymmetry in the positioning of the facilitators. Group participants challenged both facilitators, but especially the female facilitators. Facilitator strategies toward behavior change included softening direct challenges (female facilitators) and mobilizing the shared category of men (male facilitators). Implications from this study are for reflective practice in facilitator management and supervision specifically focused on gendered power dynamics. Skilled facilitation is key to behavior change and the gendered interplay within groups may be a crucial element in the reduction of interpersonal violence and abuse.

This study explored the personal perspectives of youth correctional officers within secure and open custody facilities in Ontario. A multi-methods design allowed for quantitative data collection to assess demographics and scores on a relationship scale and qualitative open-ended survey responses to explore areas of interest regarding officer work. Despite a small sample size ( = 26), results indicated trends in officers' views of their work and relationships with youth. Youth officers report various job duties ranging from supervision/security to cleaning and preparing meals. Results indicate differences in endorsement for relationship development with youth for those who see treatment as part of their role in rehabilitation and those who do not. This exploratory study provides a starting point for understanding the unique experiences and duties of youth correctional officers in Ontario, Canada, and their views on relationship development with youth. Future research will include in-person interviews, facilitating more rich data collection.

The Peace Education Program, created in 2012, is a complementary program with potential to supplement official rehabilitation interventions offered in correctional centers. The program promotes "inner peace" as an innate and universal human resource, but whilst inner peace is a key concept in positive psychology and the Good Lives Model, there is a paucity of research regarding how to operationalize and evaluate this concept. The program had not previously been the subject of independent theoretically-informed research. Drawing on a mixed methods study conducted in Adelaide Women's Prison, this article explores the impact of the program on participants' learning regarding inner peace. Participants reported a greater understanding about inner peace, which they described as contributing to a stronger sense of their identity, enhanced self-esteem and increased self-regulation skills, resulting in reductions in impulsivity and reactive aggression. The quantitative data indicated there was a significant increase in participants' subjective ratings of inner peace before the program ( = 12.08) and post-program completion ( = 14.00) ( < .001). Growth in affect-regulation and anger-management skills may contribute to reductions in offending.

Partly due to a lack of release options for individuals who committed sexual offenses, forensic follow-up treatment has been strengthened latest since 2007. The current study investigates whether the foundation of a professionalized follow-up-treatment has actually improved release options for individuals who committed sexual offenses. Thus, the aim of the present study was to assess the difference in criminogenic needs and recidivism relevant characteristics (e.g., index offense, criminal history, psychiatric diagnoses and risk assessment) between three groups who had been released from forensic psychiatry at different times or under different outpatient follow-up modalities: (1) individuals released prior the foundation of professionalized follow-up-treatment, (2) individuals released after the foundation and received treatment, and (3) individuals released after the foundation but not receiving this special treatment. It was found that with the availability of professionalized forensic followup treatment, persons with higher scores in common risk assessment tools and a longer duration of implacement had been released. Indeed, this indicates an increased risk tolerance among decision makers. However, it was not those who were released after the foundation of the professionalized forensic follow-up treatment but without this specific treatment who showed the lowest initial risk, but those who were released prior to the foundation. Results are discussed in terms of possible explanations and methodological issues.