Even after a mild episode of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), many patients suffer from persistent symptoms that can impair their quality of life for months. The potential role of psychological mechanisms in this post-COVID-19 condition, often referred to as long COVID, has been discussed early in the pandemic. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is now accumulating. First, a history of anxiety or depression is now an established risk factor for post-COVID-19 condition with a dose-response relationship and effect size similar to those of other known risk factors. This association extends to other forms of psychological distress, including perceived stress and loneliness. Second, specific beliefs about COVID-19 have been associated with the risk of subsequent similar symptoms, occurring weeks to several months later. Other studies, which have yet to be replicated, suggest an influence of the context of the initial infection (first versus second wave of the pandemic, before the emergence of significant variants and vaccination) and the trust in various sources of information about COVID-19 on the risk of subsequent symptoms. Bayesian models of perception can account for these results particularly well within a theoretical framework similar to that advanced for functional somatic disorders, integrating increased symptom expectations with decreased perception of the body internal state (interoception) and intolerance of uncertainty in the context of symptoms initially triggered by an infectious episode. These psychological mechanisms should obviously not be considered as exclusive. However, since they are modifiable, they could be targeted in clinical trials, within an integrative and multidisciplinary approach.

In the aftermath of acute infection with the severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a large number of symptoms persist or appear, constituting a real syndrome called "long COVID-19" or "post-COVID- 19" or "post-acute COVID-19 syndrome". Its incidence is very high, half of patients showing at least one symptom at 4-6 months after Coronarovirus infectious disease 2019 (COVID-19). They can affect many organs. The most common symptom is persistent fatigue, similar to that seen after other viral infections. Radiological pulmonary sequelae are relatively rare and not extensive. On the other hand, functional respiratory symptoms, primarily dyspnoea, are much more frequent. Dysfunctional breathing is a significant cause of dyspnoea. Cognitive disorders and psychological symptoms are also very common, with anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress symptoms being widely described. On the other hand, cardiac, endocrine, cutaneous, digestive or renal sequelae are rarer. The symptoms generally improve after several months, even if their prevalence at two years remains significant. Most of the symptoms are favored by the severity of the initial illness, and the psychic symptoms by the female sex. The pathophysiology of most symptoms is poorly understood. The influence of the treatments used in the acute phase is also important. Vaccination, on the other hand, seems to reduce their incidence. The sheer number of affected patients makes long-term COVID-19 syndrome a public health challenge.

Now recognized by health authorities, long COVID is identified as a frequent condition complicating the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Its polymorphic and sometimes disconcerting clinical expression raises questions about its mechanism. Patterns of clinical expression suggest extensive involvement of the nervous system through an almost ubiquitous cognitive complaint. This article reviews the neurological symptoms and forms of these patients, and the neuropsychological explorations aimed at objectifying a cognitive deficit. The studies published until now confronted with the clinical mode of expression, did not make it possible to define a deficit neuropsychological profile at the level of the groups, and evoked more a functional impairment than a lesion. However, each series mentions a small number of patients in whom a cognitive deficit is objectified. The uncertainties about the causes of the prolonged forms of COVID, the heterogeneity of the published studies, and the virtual absence of temporal evolution data should make one cautious about the interpretation of these data but should in no way delay or prevent taking into account care of these patients.

The neurological manifestations and complications of the acute phase of COVID-19 are numerous. They mainly concern the central nervous system in the frequent forms of encephalopathy, encephalitis and neurovascular pathologies. Peripheral neurological manifestations mainly include acute polyneuropathies such as Guillain-Barré syndrome and intensive care neuromyopathies. Most of these manifestations were described during the first wave of the pandemic. The epidemiological, clinical, paraclinical, pathophysiological and therapeutic aspects are addressed in this general review of the literature published from 2020 to early 2023.

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) can be responsible for epidemics or even pandemics that disrupt societies and cause national and international crises. In our globalized world, anarchic urbanization, ecosystem disruptions (deforestation, creation of dams…), changes in crop and livestock farming conditions, the increasing availability of air transport, population displacement and climate change are all factors that favor the occurrence and spread of emerging or re-emerging pathogens such as SARS-Cov, MERS-CoV, Ebola, Zika, influenza, or more recently SARS-CoV-2 and Monkeypox. States, regional and international organizations, health and research agencies, non-governmental organizations and the pharmaceutical industry are today challenged by the repetition of these crises and their consequences on health, social, economic and political balances. For the past fifteen years, we have clearly been in a new regime of infectious emergence and re-emergence. This new regime calls for new responses, to meet in the urgency the challenges of emergency epidemic crises and to better respond to the issues of crisis management in a context of "One Health". Research is an essential pillar in the response to these epidemics with a double challenge: (i) to improve knowledge on the disease, its prevention, treatment, diagnosis, impact on society. and (ii) to prepare for and understand future emergencies, "anticipate". As epidemics have occurred over the last fifteen years, French research has been organized and has evolved to respond to these crises, from the genesis of REACTing in 2011, to the creation of the ANRS Emerging Infectious Diseases in 2021.

This work aimed to assess the impact of COVID-19 on healthcare supply in sub-Saharan Africa except South Africa.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a massive influx of patients suffering from severe forms of the disease into hospitals, often requiring intensive care (vascular catheters, ventilation, etc.) which exposes them to high risks of nosocomial infections, particularly invasive infections (bacteremia).

The accumulation of senescent cells in tissues is a key process of aging and age-related diseases, including lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung fibrosis, or cancer. In recent years, the spectrum of respiratory diseases associated with cellular senescence has been broadened, in particular acute viral pulmonary infections, foremost among which is coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID19), which is particularly severe in the elderly or in subjects with comorbidities. Influenza virus infection, which strikes more severely at the extreme ages of life, is also associated with severe pulmonary senescence. Cellular senescence potentially represents an original target for attacking these diseases, although its specific mechanisms remain largely misunderstood. New anti-senescent therapeutic approaches are thus proposed during severe viral pulmonary infections, with the aim of preventing acute effects and/or, in the longer term, pulmonary sequelae.

The extreme speed of the design and provisional approval of the covid-19 mRNA vaccines, as well as the speed of their mass production one year after the start of the pandemic, surprised and contradicted all the experts and big pharmaceutical companies who expected years of development. Their superior efficacy to other vaccines should make mRNA vaccines indispensable, but their diffusion remains low outside developed countries. Several reasons are given, ranging from logistical difficulties to mistrust of populations or the impossibility of producing them locally without lifting patents. Considering that, in these debates, these patents may be challenged because they do not meet the necessary criteria of inventiveness, it appeared necessary to review the history, over more than three decades, of the academic research and entrepreneurial spirit that led to the advent of mRNA platforms, to examine their mutual merits and the role of industrial property for biotechnology companies.

"" declared President Emmanuel Macron during a speech to the nation on March 16, 2020. As part of this national resilience, the French Military Medical Service was engaged in the fight against COVID-19. This general review aims to describe and detail the actions undertaken by the French Military Medical Service in the national fight against the COVID-19 pandemic in France, as well as abroad. Experts in each field reported on the major actions taken by the French Military Medical Service during the COVID-19 pandemic in France, both domestically and overseas, beginning in spring 2020. In just a few weeks, the French Military Medical Service developed medical capabilities to support the national health authorities. It has also implemented collective medical evacuation capabilities by air and sea. A military field hospital dedicated to intensive care was also deployed to support the civilian hospital in Mulhouse. Later, military intensive care modules helped hospitals overwhelmed by the influx of COVID-19 patients in Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyana, Mayotte and New Caledonia. A COVID-19 crisis unit coordinated the actions of the French armed forces in the fight against the pandemic. The French military center for epidemiology and public health provided all the necessary information to guide the public health and medical decision-making processes. Army medical centers organized primary care for military patients, with extensive use of telemedicine. The emergency medical services of the Paris Fire Brigade and the Marseille Marine Fire Battalion provided pre-hospital care for patients with COVID-19. The eight French military training hospitals cooperated with the civilian regional health agencies to provide hospital care for the most severe patients, but also to create vaccination centers. The military medical supply chain has supported all deployments of operational medical units in France and abroad, facing a growing shortage of medical equipment. The Armed forces Biomedical Research Institute performed diagnostics, engaged in multiple research projects, updated the scientific literature review on COVID-19 daily, and provided expert recommendations on biosecurity. Finally, students from the Lyon-Bron military health schools volunteered to participate in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. In conclusion, in an unprecedented medical crisis, the French military medical service engaged in multiple innovative and adaptive actions, which are still ongoing, in the fight against COVID-19. Collaboration between military and civilian health systems has reinforced the common goal of "saving the most.".

In March 2020, the intensive care unit of the French military teaching hospital Bégin (Saint-Mandé) had to make profound changes to deal with the first COVID-19 epidemic wave. First, the twelve beds of the intensive care unit (ICU) were allocated to COVID-19 patients, among them four beds usually dedicated to postoperative care. Then, on the model of the military medical-surgical facilities rolled out in external operations, a new transient intensive care unit was set up in Bégin within four days. This strategy of increasing capacities had to address a crucial challenge: to ensure safe and quality health care with limited resources. Based on precise specifications and an essential strengthening of staff and supplies, 20 additional ICU care rooms were fully equipped in the cardiology department of the hospital. Eventually, 32 ICU beds were available from March 20, performing a 300% increase in bed capacities. During the whole epidemic wave, 113 patients were managed. The evacuation of 16 stable patients with medicalized trains toward less impacted French regions helped to avoid saturation. The service has also been involved in various research activities, including the DisCoVeRy European clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of several antiviral treatments. Leaving the operating room and the post-interventional surveillance room partially functional made it possible to quickly resume the elective surgical activity after the crisis, while keeping the transient ICU available in case of an epidemic rebound, as happened in the autumn of 2020, then in the spring of 2021.

The French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute (IRBA) deeply involved in research on SARS-COV-2, participated in the creation of the Obépine sentinel network in charge of detecting, qualifying and quantifying the virus genome in wastewater in France. During this pandemic, wastewater-based epidemiology has proven to be a first class public health tool for assessing viral dynamics in populations and environment. Obépine has also conducted research demonstrating the low infectivity of faeces and wastewater and allowed for early detection of epidemic waves linked to new variants. The IRBA has adapted this powerful tool to the monitoring of viral infections on board the aircraft carrier Charles-de-Gaulle in order to get an operational system for anticipation after the first local outbreak in 2020. The presence of this surveillance and anticipation tool has allowed a better management of SARS-CoV-2 contingent introductions on board during stopovers or crewmembers entries. The combination of a mandatory vaccination protocol and the surveillance of viral circulation in black waters has made it possible to identify and locate cases, and thus to continue the operational mission in the COVID-19 environment while limiting the spread and preserving the health of the crew. This innovative tool can easily be redirected to the search for any other pathogens in blackwater or even, in the long term, to ensure health surveillance of any military establishment, at sea or on land, in France or on overseas bases.