Since the 1950s, there have been rapid developments in psychiatric pharmacotherapy, resulting not only in more effective treatment of patients, but also in improvements in minimizing adverse effects of therapy. Modern third-generation antipsychotics, in addition to antagonism toward D2 receptors, also exhibit partial agonism toward dopamine receptors. Such a mechanism of action is intended to regulate dopaminergic transmission - inhibit (antagonism) it in pathways where it is excessive (excessive transmission in the mesolimbic pathway in psychotic patients, excessive transmission in the tuberoinfundibular pathway in patients with hyperprolactinemia) and stimulate (agonism) it in pathways where it is too low (mesocortical pathway). This has a beneficial effect on both the reduction of adverse symptoms and the negative, affective and cognitive symptoms of patients suffering from schizophrenia. The purpose of this review article is to present the most important clinical aspects of the use of dopamine D2 receptor partial agonists in the treatment of schizophrenia, using brexpiprazole as an example, and to define the profile of patients to whom this drug could be dedicated - based on recent studies.

The article presents the provisions currently in force in Polish legislation regarding legal termination of pregnancy. In particular, it refers to the premise of a psychiatrist's decision that the health of a pregnant woman is at risk. Under Polish law, termination of pregnancy is generally prohibited and penalized. However, there are two exceptions to this prohibition. Such a procedure is permitted if: the pregnancy poses a threat to the life or health of the pregnant woman, or if there is a reasonable suspicion that the pregnancy was the result of a prohibited act. The text presents an overview of the relevant regulations and tips on their interpretation and application in everyday medical practice. This issue is particularly important for psychiatrists consulting maternity wards. In addition, the most important mental disorders related to pregnancy and childbirth are described. The clinical features and prevalence of perinatal mood disorders and psychoses are presented. The issue of suicide among pregnant and postpartum patients was also discussed. A sample certificate template was proposed, and guidelines were discussed as to what information and conclusions should be included in the opinion of a psychiatrist.

This study aimed to adapt the shortened version of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-SF) into Polish and to evaluate the psychometric properties and factor structure of this new measure.

The paper further explores the development of psychotherapy in Polish psychiatry in the interwar period. Jaroszyński attempted to sketch out the idea of "emotional psychotherapy". Stryjeński organized a counseling clinic for the mentally ill, using psychotherapy as one of the means of treatment. Bilikiewicz developed oneiroanalysis - a psychotherapeutic method of dream analysis based on modifications of psychoanalysis. Gottliebowa advocated for the use of psychoanalytically influenced psychotherapy in the gynaecologist practice. Markuszewicz considered psychoanalysis the only psychotherapeutic modality aimed at unearthing the real causes of mental illnesses. Henryk Higier proposed to consider psychoanalysis practically as a method of psychotherapy and saw its heterogeneity as its advantage. Critical views on psychoanalysis as a psychotherapeutic method were delivered by Wirszubski and Mikulski. In general, psychotherapy in Polish psychiatry of the interwar period was highly influenced by psychoanalysis. Moreover, the understanding and practice of psychotherapy in public psychiatric facilities differed from that in private practice. In public psychiatric facilities, it was used mainly to deal with psychoses, so it urged clinicians to modify the classic psychoanalytic approach. In private practice, psychiatrists were dealing mainly with cases of neuroses and therefore could apply standard psychoanalytic procedures. Methods of suggestion, persuasion and hypnosis, characteristic of nineteenth-century psychotherapy, were still in use in Polish psychiatry of the interwar period. The main obstacles to the development of Polish psychotherapy in the interwar period were antisemitic attitudes contributing to hostility towards psychoanalysis, as well as the biological orientation of the majority of the Polish psychiatric society.

The paper explores the development of psychotherapy in Polish psychiatry in the interwar period from the perspective of Kurt Danziger's historical psychology. Firstly, the organizational and social context of the development of Polish psychiatric care in the interwar period and its impact on the development of psychotherapy is outlined. Then, the most influential in Poland, European psychotherapeutic developments in the interwar period are reconstructed. Finally, the views of psychiatric personnel of three psychiatric facilities proposing psychotherapy as one of the main means of treatment of mentally ill patients are introduced: Dziekanka Psychiatric Hospital, the Jewish Hospital in Warsaw and Psychiatry and Neuropathology Clinic of the Jagiellonian University in Krakow. Psychiatric personnel from Dziekanka Psychiatric Hospital, directed by Aleksander Piotrowski, understood psychotherapy broadly, as the influence of the environment on the patient's psyche. Psychiatrists of the Jewish Hospital in Warsaw, Adam Wizel, Gustaw Bychowski, Władysław Matecki, and Maurycy Bornsztajn developed psychoanalytically influenced psychotherapy of schizophrenia. Bychowski also advocated for the application of psychotherapy in such neglected groups of patients as children and the intellectually disabled. Jan Piltz and Eugeniusz Artwiński pursued psychotherapy in the treatment of war neuroses at the Psychiatry and Neuropathology Clinic of the Jagiellonian University.

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The aim of this exploratory study is to evaluate whether implicit motor learning impairments observed in schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are associated with the resting state functional connectivity (rs-FC) within large-scale functional networks.

Psychosomatic disorders (somatic symptom disorder - SSD) constitute a heterogeneous group of medical conditions characterized by somatic symptoms without explained somatic causes. Due to the complexity of symptoms, they present a significant medical, social and economic challenge, and diagnosing and treating these disorders remains a substantial clinical challenge. The aim of the conducted research was an attempt to identify characteristic patterns in the surface-level brain bioelectrical activity of individuals experiencing psychosomatic disorders. The obtained results may contribute to understanding the pathomechanism of these disorders and developing objective methods for diagnosis and differentiation of functional dysfunctions.

The purpose of this study was to examine relationship between anhedonia, disruption of biological rhythms, functioning and depression severity in patients with bipolar disorder (BD).

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and cyberchondria in a sample of men and women. The study also examined the significance of Big Five personality traits as mediators of this relationship.

Trazodone is a serotonin antagonist/reuptake inhibitor, approved for treating major depressive disorder (MDD). Oral formulations are widely studied and marketed in several countries worldwide while there is little evidence to support use of parenteral formulation. Our narrative review summarizes pharmacological properties and clinical data concerning use of parenteral trazodone in mood disorders. PubMed and Web of Science were used to identify the most relevant literature. The main evidence concerns four studies evaluating efficacy in major depressive disorder and indicates that trazodone was well tolerated and effective. Off-label use in agitation associated with bipolar disorder is also reported in three studies, although prescription of concomitant treatment, as a confounding factor, may have influenced outcome measures. The limited available evidence supports parenteral trazodone use in major depressive disorder and suggests that trazodone is a suitable option in patients at high risk of treatment-emergent mania (TEM).

Evidence suggests that decreased dopamine secretion in mesocorticolimbic pathways could predispose to increased susceptibility to substance addiction. It has been proposed to define such a phenomenon as the reward deficit syndrome (RDS). Dopaminergic projections of the reward system receive glutaminergic projections from cortex. Research indicates that a reduction in the stimulating glutamatergic transmission on the dopaminergic system could represent an alternative phenotype of RDS. Potential source of this type of abnormality is glutamate reuptake which depends on excitatory amino acid transport proteins (EAAT) function. The most important of them is EAAT2, polymorphisms of which have been linked to several mental disorders.

This paper examines nosological categories relating to borderlines between psychosis and other clinical categories, introduced by Polish psychiatrists in the interwar period. In the United States, the discussion about the borderline between neuroses and psychoses was urged by the 1938 article by psychoanalyst Adolph Stern. In Poland, nosological categories regarding the borderline between neuroses and psychoses were proposed by Adam Wizel, Maurycy Bornsztajn, Jan Nelken, and Władysław Matecki. Wizel coined the term 'underdeveloped schizophrenia', Bornsztajn introduced 'schizothymia reactiva' and 'hypochondriac (somatopsychic) schizophrenia', Nelken described 'mild schizophrenia', first introduced by Moscow psychiatric school of Rosenstein, and Matecki presented the category of neurosis-like (pseudo-neurotic) schizophrenia. Additionally, Julian Dretler, after studying the borderline between schizophrenia and manic-depressive psychosis, coined the term 'mixed psychosis' and expressed conviction that it is an independent nosological entity. Like in the United States, the majority of Polish pioneers of the nosological studies of borderline cases were influenced by psychoanalysis. As a consequence of World War II and the new regime, which forced dialectical materialism and Pavlovism as an official ideology of psychiatry and condemned psychoanalysis, the categories presented in the article became forgotten and have not impacted Polish psychiatric nosology.

Consciousness is most frequently defined as a subjective experience of mental processes. The phenomenon of consciousness has always been a subject of great interest in various fields of science, including psychiatry, and the most prominent scientists have engaged in research on it. The studies performed in recent years have brought about novel data on the evolutionary and neurobiological attributes of this phenomenon. In the first part of the article, the evolutionary concepts of consciousness are presented, going back to the beginnings of life on our planet. They are proposed by such illustrious scientists as Joseph LeDoux, Daniel Dennett, António Damásio, and Arthur Reber. Each of them presents the issue of consciousness in the context of evolution slightly differently. However, there are many similarities concerning the development of the nervous system and mental life. The second part discusses the novel research on the cognitive and neurobiological components of consciousness. Among many researchers of this issue, we chose the achievements of two British authors such as Chris Frith and Anil Seth. The neuroanatomical and perceptive aspects of both the level and context of consciousness are provided. Besides presenting the contemporary evolutionary and neurobiological concepts of consciousness, the article aims to bring closer the profiles of the prominent researchers of neuroscience mentioned here. This term can be translated into Polish as "neuronauka", although our country's most frequently used name is "neurobiologia."

The Polish standard of treatment with racemic ketamine for patients with depressive disorders was developed by a Working Group appointed by the National Consultant in the field of psychiatry. Despite the wide range of available medications, as many as one-third of depressed patients do not respond to standard antidepressant treatment, raising the need for an ongoing search for new effective and safe therapies. In recent years, the possible role of overactivity of the glutamatergic system in the etiopathogenesis of depression has again attracted the attention of many experts. The possibility of using substances with a modulating effect on the glutamatergic system in the treatment of depressive disorders has been postulated, among others, the long-known anesthetic ketamine, which is a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist. This paper summarizes the results of studies on the efficacy and safety of racemic ketamine (administered intravenously) in the treatment of patients with depressive symptoms in the course of both unipolar and bipolar affective disorder, and, meeting the expectations of many practicing psychiatrists wishing to broaden the range of therapies offered to their patients, presents recommendations on indications, contraindications, precautions and the treatment regimen itself with intravenous ketamine for patients with mood disorders.

The aim of this pilot study was to compare the level of empathy, temperament and character traits before and after 6 months of treatment in a group of patients staying in a psychiatric day care unit in groups with different (internalising vs. externalising) disorder types.

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This year, we observe sixty's anniversary of the article by a British psychiatrist, Geoffrey Hartigan, demonstrating, for the first time, the possibility of preventing of the recurrence of mood disorders by using lithium salts. Herein, a history of prevention of recurrences of mood disorders both worldwide and in Poland will be presented concerning both lithium and other mood-stabilizing drugs. The merit for verifying the prophylactic lithium effect in the 1960-1970s should be given to Danish researchers, Mogens Schou and Poul Baastrup. In Poland, the first paper on prophylactic lithium appeared already in 1971. In the 1970s, French researchers showed prophylactic activity of valproic acid amide, and Japanese researchers - carbamazepine. In the 1980th, studies on valproic acid amide were performed in the 2nd Psychiatric Clinic of the Institute of Psychiatry and Neurology led by Prof. Pużyński. Since the mid-1990s, 2nd generation of mood-stabilizing drugs has been introduced, including some atypical antipsychotics (clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, aripiprazole, risperidone) and anticonvulsant drug, lamotrigine, showing prophylactic activity in bipolar mood disorder. The studies on lithium resulted in the identification of factors connected with its prophylactic efficacy as well as the antisuicidal, antiviral, and neuroprotective effects of this drug. From a sixty-year perspective following Hartigan's article, it seems that his pioneering concept on the possibility of pharmacological influence on the course of mood disorders was fully confirmed. Current Polish recommendations on pharmacological prophylaxis of mood disorders were presented in the books "Standardy leczenia niektórych zaburzeń psychicznych" and "Psychofarmakologia kliniczna", both published in 2022.

Brexpiprazole is a new antipsychotic drug from the group of dopamine D2/D3 receptor partial agonists. It represents a development of the second-generation antipsychotics and is an important addition to the pharmacological treatment options for schizophrenia. The purpose of this article is to present, illustrated by the case of brexpiprazole, how advances in the pharmacological properties of new antipsychotics translate into improved results in the treatment of schizophrenia, not only in terms of symptom reduction, but also in terms of functional improvement. The ratio of activation to blocking of the D2/D3 receptor is lower for brexpiprazole than for aripiprazole and cariprazine, which may translate into a lower risk of akathisia. Brexpiprazole has also stronger antihistaminic activity, which is likely to be associated with a stronger sedative effect, a lower risk of akathisia, excessive agitation and insomnia. Brexpiprazole meets the traditional requirements for an antipsychotic drug's efficacy, i.e., compared to placebo, it brings a greater reduction in schizophrenia symptoms in short-term studies and prevents schizophrenia relapses in long-term follow-up. The highest antipsychotic efficacy was found with the highest registered dose (4 mg/day). In addition to reducing positive symptoms, brexpiprazole treatment also leads to a reduction in negative and depressive symptoms, as well as anxiety. It has also a positive effect on patients' social and personal functioning and quality of life. This action of the drug is in line with the expectations of patients and their families regarding effective treatment. It should not only reduce symptoms, but also enable a return to health, i.e., a state that, in addition to optimal health and a sense of psychological well-being, also makes it possible to maintain proper social relations.

This article presents the trait of sensory processing sensitivity (SPS), its characteristics, assessment tool and association with psychiatric disorders based on an analysis of the literature on SPS since 1997. An overview of research on SPS in several relevant contexts is presented: evolutionary/adaptive, socio-cultural, temperamental/personality, and biological, taking into account the influence of genetic factors and the activity of specific areas of the central nervous system involved in processing emotional and cognitive stimuli. High sensitivity of sensory processing is an innate trait, biologically determined and modulating developmental processes, occurring in 20-35% of the general population regardless of gender. It is characterized by deeper processing of stimuli, ease of overstimulation, strong emotional reactions and empathic bonds, as well as sensitivity to subtleties in the surrounding world. SPS can be associated with susceptibility to the development of a wide range of psychiatric symptoms and disorders, including depressive and anxiety disorders, social phobia, alexithymia, burnout, internalizing and externalizing disorders and selective mutism in children.

This study sought to determine whether the symptoms of prolonged grief disorder (PGD) according to ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR have a unifactorial structure. Second, we sought to determine the sociodemographic and loss-related correlates of PGD symptom severity according to ICD-11 and DSM-5-TR.

Treatment of patients with advanced heart failure (HF) with the use of left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) improves the quality of life and the length of survival. Despite the undeniable benefits associated with improved physical performance, as a result of the decrease of the underlying disease symptoms, it carries the risk of complications in the area of the patient's somatic and psychological status. Long-term circulatory failure can contribute to a weakening of the adaptative mechanism and consequently lead to a variety of emotional disruptions. Patients must face the fear of imminent physical, family, and social changes that LVAD requires. They may experience sleep disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and in the early postoperative period also disorders of consciousness with a pattern of delirium. For this reason, it is advisable to provide multidisciplinary medical care for the patient at all stages of treatment, including regular monitoring of general health and mental health. This article presents risk factors for psychiatric disorders in patients with LVADs and ways of pharmacological and non-pharmacological management when these factors are identified and disorders are diagnosed.

Clozapine is one of the most effective antipsychotic drugs, but its use is limited due to the possibility of severe side effects, such as neutropenia and agranulocytosis. The risk of these complications is the highest at the beginning of the treatment, but they can occur later, particularly when additional risk factors are present. In the described case, either COVID-19 vaccination or the infection itself led to severe neutropenia, which recurred during subsequent independent trials of other antipsychotic drugs. The paper presents the case of a 23-year-old woman diagnosed with early-onset, treatment-resistant schizophrenia who had been undergoing clozapine treatment with satisfying outcome for over 10 years. A week after the first dose of an mRNA vaccine against COVID-19, the patient developed a severe SARS-CoV-2 infection and experienced an extreme neutropenia, followed by a change of treatment. Although the patient fully recovered from the infection, the re-stabilization of her mental state remained unsatisfactory. The introduction of various newly implemented antipsychotic drugs led to partial improvement or another decline in the neutrophil count, despite discontinuing the use of clozapine. The authors discuss a few possible pathomechanisms. Based on our current knowledge, this is the first reported case of persistent neutropenia triggered by various antipsychotic drugs following exposure to SARS-CoV-2 antigens.

This study aimed to trace changes in the participation of Polish gamblers in online and offline (land-based) gambling caused by the temporary restrictions on access to land-based gambling venues imposed during the first national lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic.

To depict overall psychological well-being of a large group of students of different universities in Ukraine three months after the emerge of the full-scale war.

Some studies suggest that homosexual identity, compared to heterosexual, may be associated with a reduced risk of premature ejaculation (PE). The aim of this study was to test this relationship and to investigate possible underlaying mechanisms.

Eidetic images are a relatively rare phenomenon in the practice of a psychiatrist. They are described in the category of perception disorders as images or memories which, thanks to their plasticity, vividness and detail, are very similar to the currently experienced sensory perceptions. However, it should be remembered that their occurrence is not associated with any mental disorders, and they are also observed in some healthy people. This paper presents a case report of a patient with complaints about "voiced," plastic images - the course of his psychiatric hospitalization and the psychological diagnostics carried out at that time. The authors point out the difficulties in differentiating, first of all, with auditory pseudo-hallucinations and make an attempt at psychopathological classification of the patient's symptoms. The discussion on possible disease mechanisms of this phenomenon is based on reports as well as research on the phenomenon of imagination and eidetic perceptions, and the aim of this study is to draw the attention of diagnosticians to the category of psychological phenomena with an eidetic character, which may allow them to avoid incorrect recognition of them as an element of psychotic disorders of perception.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) remains the most effective method of treating acute mental conditions in psychiatry. The progress that has been made in anesthesiology in recent years allows for the personalization and optimization of electroconvulsive therapy through purely anesthetic interventions. There are few procedures in medicine where anesthesia would have such a direct impact on the effectiveness, or even success, of a given procedure. A key aspect of electroconvulsive therapy is a selection of the appropriate anesthetic. In Polish conditions, we have a choice of thiopental, propofol, etomidate, and ketamine - each with different, unique properties and a different impact on the generated epileptic seizure and the patient's hemodynamic safety. From the psychiatrist's perspective, etomidate and ketamine seem to be optimal, as they have no anti-epileptic effect and allow the use of lower energy values, which translates into a lower risk of cognitive dysfunction. However, their use is associated with more frequent cases of hypertension and tachycardia. Ketofol, a mixture of ketamine and propofol, helps to alleviate excessive increases in blood pressure and pulse rate through the hemostabilizing property of propofol. Another important issue is the dose of the anesthetic used, i.e., the depth of anesthesia, which can be monitored using the bispectral index. Too deep anesthesia will result in less effectiveness of the procedure itself. The flow of the electric current requires the patient's muscles to be fully relaxed. Succinylcholine, which is a depolarizing muscle relaxant, remains the drug of choice. In the case of contraindications to its use, non-depolarizing agents, such as mivacurium or rocuronium, turn out to be useful, although the duration of the procedure is definitely longer. Sugammadex allows for full abolition of rocuronium-induced relaxation, but it remains a drug that is usually unaffordable.

The study aimed to create a Polish version of the Gender-Sensitive Depression Screening (GSDS-26) by AM Möller-Leimkühler and to assess its validity and reliability. The tool measures the overall level of depression and the following factors: depressiveness, stress perception, aggressiveness, emotional control, alcohol consumption, and risky behavior. The relationships between depression measured by the GSDS 25 and the subjects' adjustment to stereotypical male roles were also checked.

The study aimed to provide information on the psychometric properties of the MCQ-A for Polish adolescents; confirm the factor structure of the instrument relative to the original scale; and present the intensity of dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs of adolescents during the pandemic.