Equine sarcoids are common non-metastasising skin tumours in horses, associated with bovine papillomavirus (BPV) infection. Six subtypes are recognised (occult, verrucose, nodular, fibroblastic, mixed and malevolent lesions), with variable clinical behaviour. The pathophysiology underlying varying tumour phenotype is poorly understood, and previous data on associations with viral load have been conflicting. To better understand this clinical variation, we investigated associations between tumour subtype and viral load, viral early protein gene expression, and expression of 10 host genes by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in 27 sarcoids and 5 normal skin samples. Viral DNA copy number did not differ between subtypes but was significantly higher in animals with fewer tumours. Expression of BPV E2 and E6 was higher in occult lesions compared to fibroblastic or nodular lesions, while E5 expression was higher in previously-treated lesions. Of the host genes, only IL6 and IL1B differed between subtypes, with higher expression in fibroblastic lesions, while IL10 and CCL5 were elevated compared to skin in all lesion types, and elevations in TNF and TGFB1 were significant for occult lesions only. Expression of TLR9, ATR, VEGFA and PTGS2 in sarcoids was not significantly different from normal skin, suggesting differences between BPV and human papillomavirus tumorigenesis. Results for BPV viral load and gene expression differed from previous reports and are insufficient to explain the spectrum of tumour phenotypes. Activation of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune pathways in sarcoids could influence tumour growth and effective immune responses, and the contribution of specific infiltrating immune cells requires further investigation.

Salmonella is a critical group of zoonotic pathogens that are widely spread in poultry, causing avian salmonellosis. This disease usually leads to significant reductions in poultry performance, including reduced egg production in laying hens, decreased hatchability in chicks, and retarded growth in broilers. As a result, worldwide poultry industry suffers serious economic losses. Vaccination serves as an essential strategy for preventing Salmonella infection in poultry, effectively reducing susceptibility and alleviating disease symptoms, while also minimizing fecal shedding and environmental contamination. This subsequently diminishes public health risks. Various Salmonella vaccines can induce humoral and cellular immune responses to different extents. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the immune defense mechanisms, especially adaptive immune responses in poultry infected with Salmonella, is crucial for the development of Salmonella vaccines. This review summarizes the progress in the application of Salmonella vaccines in poultry, including adaptive immune responses induced by Salmonella and vaccines targeting the predominant circulating serotypes in poultry. It also provides an insight into the future of poultry-origin Salmonella vaccines.

Studying mononuclear phagocytes by flow cytometry is challenging due to their phenotypic similarities and the high plasticity of monocytic cells. Despite these challenges, significant progress has been made in cattle research through multicolor flow cytometry, transcriptomics of sorted subsets, and single-cell RNA-sequencing. Here, we provide an overview of established and proposed phenotypic classifications in the bovine mononuclear phagocyte system and discuss the challenges of marker discovery.

The aim of this study was to ascertain the prognostic significance of the neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and platelet indices during hospital admission in cats with feline panleukopenia (FPV). A prospective observational study was conducted on 24 cats diagnosed with FPV. The results of the study demonstrated a significant decrease in NLR, platelet count (PLT), and platelet concentration (PCT) in the FPV survivor group compared to the control group. Furthermore, these parameters exhibited a notable decline in the FPV non-survivor group when compared to both the control group and the FPV survivor group. In contrast, mean platelet volume (MPV) and platelet distribution width (PDW) were significantly elevated in the FPV non-surviving cats compared to the control group. Moreover, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was employed to identify a prognostic cut-off value for predicting the prognosis of cats with FPV. The positive predictive values (PPVs) for survival were determined to be 90 %, 95 %, 85 %, 85 %, 85 %, and 75 %, respectively, using cut-off values of NLR (≤ 0.29), PLT (≤ 202.5 ×10³/µL), PCT (≤ 0.19 %), MPV (≥ 10.3 fL), and PDW (≥ 34.9 %). Based on the sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive values obtained from the ROC analysis, it was concluded that the NLR, MPV, and PLT are excellent biomarkers for determining prognosis in cats with FPV. Nevertheless, the PLT level is of greater significance, exhibiting a higher AUC.

The control and management of Q fever outbreaks in ruminants are currently based on vaccination. Although buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are intensively farmed in several countries and represent a reservoir for Coxiellosis, no evidence has been described regarding the efficacy of vaccination in this species. This work aimed to evaluate the humoral response, using appropriate phase-specific ELISAs, and the effects on abortion rate in buffalo by a field study. A total of 15 seropositive and 20 seronegative animals were vaccinated twice, three weeks apart, with a commercial phase I vaccine, and phase-specific antibodies were determined in the course of vaccination. Although anti-phase II antibody reactivity predominated after vaccination compared to phase I, both anti-phase I- and -phase II-antibody-reactivity significantly increased after the first (p = 0.001) and again after the second vaccination (p = 0.05). Seroconversion did not significantly depend on age or natural infection status. Once the vaccination cycle was completed, the herd study observed a reduced rate of abortion and placenta retention. Our data demonstrated that the vaccine principally induced a similar antibody response as in goats and sheep. These preliminary data appeared to support vaccination in buffalo, even in seropositive animals, although further studies are needed to better define the dynamics concerning seroconversion in this species.

This study aims to investigate the effects of Procalcitonin, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Interleukin-6, and Haptoglobin levels on the prognosis of calves classified according to the severity of diarrhea. The animal material comprised 48 diarrheic calves of different breeds and sexes, aged 1-30 days, and 16 healthy calves aged 1-30 days. The 48 diarrheic calves used were divided into 3 groups, each consisting of 16 calves. Group 1 was designed as Viral (Rota + Corona n = 16), Group 2 as Bacterial (E. coli n = 16), and Group 3 as Parasitic (Cryptosporidiosis n = 16). Each of these groups was further divided into 2 subgroups (moderate and severe subgroups). Blood samples were taken from the diarrheic calves before treatment (0 h) and at 24 and 72 h after treatment. Complete blood count, biochemical, blood gas analyses, and ELISA tests were performed. It was determined that 18.75 % (9/48) of the 48 diarrheic calves included in the study died, while 81.25 % (39/48) survived. The highest mortality rate among the patient groups was observed in the severe rota + corona group (37.5 %). The average PCT concentration in the diarrheic calves in the Rota-corona and E. coli groups at 0 and 24 hours was found to be higher than both the healthy calves and the diarrheic calves in the Cryptosporidium spp. group (P<0.001). This increase was also observed in the Cryptosporidium spp. group at 72 h (P<0.001). A positive and moderate correlation was observed between Procalcitonin and TNF-α (r = 0.603, P<0.001). As a result, it was concluded that the Procalcitonin value, along with other tests, could be used as a biomarker to determine the prognosis of the disease in diarrheic calves, regardless of the etiological agent. This study was evaluated as an original study in which cytokines and acute phase proteins were investigated before and after treatment, with diarrhea divided into subgroups.

As a natural anti-inflammatory agent, it remains unclear whether the anti-inflammatory effects of VD3 (1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3) are related to autophagy. This study investigates the impact of VD3 on inflammatory injury, autophagy, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BEECs) and bovine endometrial organoids (BEOs). BEECs and BEOs were treated with LPS (1 μg/ml) for 24 hours, followed by treatment with LPS+VD3 (50 ng/ml) for 6 hours. Cell viability was assessed using the CCK8 assay. The expression levels of inflammatory factors (IL-1β, IL-6, TLR4, NF-κB), autophagy markers (Beclin-1, ATG5, ATG7, p62), and components of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway (PI3K, AKT, and mTOR) were quantified using qRT-PCR and Western blot analyses. LC3B expression was detected by immunofluorescence, and the apoptosis rate was assessed using Annexin V. The results demonstrated a significant decrease in the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, TLR4, and NF-κB, along with a notable increase in the activity of CAT and SOD2 in the LPS+VD3 group (P < 0.05). The expression of autophagy-related factors was significantly increased, whereas the expression of signaling pathway factors was decreased in the LPS+VD3 group (P < 0.05). Additionally, apoptosis was significantly alleviated in the LPS+VD3 group (P < 0.05). Collectively, these findings indicate that VD3 modulates autophagy, attenuates oxidative stress and inflammatory damage in BEECs and BEOs, and inhibits LPS-induced apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway.

Ruminant livestock exhibit certain immune characteristics that make them valuable models for studying T cell receptor diversity and immune responses. This resistance is attributed to their well-developed immune system, comprising both innate and adaptive components. In this review, we delve into the intricate workings of the immune system of ruminant livestock, focusing on innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Specifically, we discuss the TR V(D)J genes (including TRB, TRG, and TRA/D chain) and the characteristics of the complementary determining region 3 (CDR3) repertoire in bovine and ovine species, shedding light on the diversity and functionality of the T-cell receptor(TCR) repertoire in these species. Understanding the distinct features of these germline genes and CDR3 repertoires is essential for unraveling the complexities of immune responses in ruminant livestock. Lastly, we outline future prospects in this field, emphasizing the importance of further research to enhance our understanding of ruminant livestock immunity and its potential applications in disease management, vaccine development, and breeding strategies.

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (M. hyopneumoniae) is a significant porcine respiratory disease complex pathogen, prompting many swine farms and production systems to pursue M. hyopneumoniae elimination strategies. Antibody testing is cost-effective in demonstrating sustained freedom from M. hyopneumoniae, often replacing PCR testing on deep tracheal swabs. The process typically involves testing a subpopulation of the herd using an M. hyopneumoniae screening antibody ELISA, with non-negative results further assessed through confirmatory testing, such as PCR. Recently, a commercial (Biovet) fluorescent microsphere immunoassay (FMIA) for detecting M. hyopneumoniae antibodies has been introduced as an alternative to ELISA. Its performance was compared to three commercial ELISAs (Idexx, Hipra, and Biochek) using experimental serum samples from pigs inoculated with M. hyopneumoniae, M. hyorhinis, M. hyosynoviae, M. flocculare, or mock-inoculated with Friis medium. FMIA consistently detected M. hyopneumoniae at earlier time points than the ELISAs, although two false-positive results were encountered using the manufacturer's recommended cutoff. ROC analysis allowed for the evaluation of various cutoffs depending on testing objectives. Poisson regression of misclassification error counts detected no difference in the Biovet FMIA and Hipra ELISA but significantly fewer misclassification errors than Idexx and Biocheck ELISAs. This study showed FMIA as a suitable alternative to traditional ELISAs for screening purposes due to its superior antibody detection rate at early stages. Alternatively, adopting a more stringent cutoff to improve diagnostic specificity could position the FMIA as a viable confirmatory test option. Overall, FMIA is an optimal choice for M. hyopneumoniae antibody surveillance testing, offering versatility in testing strategies (e.g., triplex FMIA M. hyopneumoniae/PRRSV types 1 and 2) and contributing to improved diagnostic capabilities in porcine health management.

Breed differences exist between horses and ponies in circulating concentrations of several hormones, notably ACTH and insulin. These hormones regulate stress and metabolic responses, but in other species, they also impact leukocyte oxidant responses. The effects of these hormones on equine leukocytes have not been evaluated to date. If equine leukocytes are similarly regulated, breed differences in increased plasma hormone concentrations or altered sensitivity to them at the leukocyte level could result in breed-related differences in oxidant responses or oxidative status. The objective of this study was therefore to determine the effects of ex vivo exposure to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), insulin, or leptin on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production from leukocytes isolated from horses and ponies. We hypothesized that ACTH, α-MSH, insulin, and leptin would alter oxidant responses from equine leukocytes in a breed specific manner. Blood was collected from 10 apparently healthy Quarter horses and seven Welsh ponies for isolation of neutrophils and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) via density gradient centrifugation. Cells were incubated with media (negative control), microbial antigens (positive control), or ACTH, α-MSH, leptin, or insulin for two hours. Induced ROS production was quantified with a previously validated fluorometric assay. Data was compared within groups by comparing a stimulant within a group (horses or ponies) to baseline, between groups by comparing horse response to pony response, and among stimulants using one- and two-way, repeated measures ANOVA (P<0.05). There was no significant effect of breed on basal, microbial-induced, or hormone-induced ROS production from neutrophils (P=0.465) or PBMCs (P=0.749), but in neutrophils, a significant interaction between breed and stimulant was present (P=0.037). ROS production from PBMCs from horses after hormone exposure did not differ from cells exposed to media only (P=0.1520-0.8180). Similarly, neither leptin nor insulin exposure significantly induced ROS production from PBMCs from ponies (P= 0.2645 and 0.4678 respectively), but exposure to ACTH or α-MSH induced a significant increase in ROS production (P=0.0441 and 0.0440 respectively) compared to unstimulated cells. Hormones that vary in availability among breeds may induce ex vivo pro-oxidant responses in equine leukocytes, but specific effects are breed-, leukocyte type-, and hormone-dependent. Breed differences in hormonally induced leukocyte ROS production may warrant further investigation in the context of circulating oxidative stress and how this might relate to future disease risk.

Protozoan parasite Neospora caninum causes abortion in infected cattle while others remain asymptomatic. Host immunity plays a critical role in the outcome of bovine neosporosis. Despite extensive research, there is a critical gap in therapeutic and preventive measures, and no effective vaccines are available. Both beef and dairy cattle can suffer from N. caninum-induced abortions, but cumulative evidence suggests a breed susceptibility being higher in dairy compared with beef breeds. It has been established that the response to N. caninum infection primarily involves a cell-mediated immune response (CMIR) regulated by T-helper type 1 (Th1) cells and specific cytokines. The delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin test has been used to measure the ability of livestock to generate CMIR, in the context of breeding for disease resistance and as a method for diagnosis of several diseases. In this study, we evaluated the immune response triggered by an N. caninum-induced DTH skin test between Holstein - a dairy breed intensively selected- and Argentinean Creole heifers - a beef breed with minimal genetic selection- to assess differences in CMIR following experimental N. caninum infection. The immune response, measured through skinfold thickness and histological and immune molecular analysis, revealed variations between the breeds. Our study found an increased CMIR in Argentinean Creole heifers compared to Holstein heifers. Differential gene expression of key cytokines was observed at the DTH skin test site. Argentinean Creole heifers exhibited elevated IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-10, and IL-4, while Holstein heifers only showed higher expression of IL-17. This finding could underscore genetic diversity in response to neosporosis, which could be used in breeding cattle strategies for disease resistance in cattle populations.

Cattle express three subclasses of IgG antibody - IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3. Unlike IgG1 and IgG2, IgG3 was described relatively recently and the role of this subclass in immunity is unknown. Using recombinant bovine IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), we demonstrated that only one of the commercially available anti-bovine IgG mAbs tested was able to recognize IgG3, and no mAb exclusively bound IgG3. Here, we evaluated a small ankyrin repeat protein, called Ankyron™ AZS40101, that was generated to bind to bovine IgG3. Ankyron™ AZS40101 bound specifically to IgG3 with minimal reactivity to IgG1 and IgG2. Ankyron™ AZS40101 was shown to be useful in ELISA assays as either a capture or detection reagent. Utilisation of Ankyron™ AZS40101 alongside IgG1 and IgG2 specific mAbs to detect antigen-specific IgG subclasses in the serum of cattle sequentially vaccinated with heterologous foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid antigens revealed a low-level antigen-specific IgG3 response, in addition to IgG1 and IgG2 responses. Assessment of the total IgG1, IgG2 and IgG3 levels in healthy cattle plasma samples showed that IgG3 was measurable at a mean concentration of 0.19 mg/mL, although this was significantly lower than those of IgG1 (mean 3.28 mg/mL) and IgG2 (mean 3.41 mg/mL). Thus, Ankyron™ AZS40101 is a new reagent that provides utility for measurement of bovine IgG3 responses to infection and vaccination.

Swine are considered one of the most relevant large animal biomedical models since they share many immunological similarities with humans. Despite that, macrophage polarization has not comprehensively investigated in pigs. In this study, porcine monocyte-derived macrophages (moMΦ) were untreated or stimulated with IFN-γ + LPS (classical activation), or by different M2 polarizing stimuli: IL-4, IL-10, TGF-β, or dexamethasone. Expression of key cytokine genes (IL1B2, IL33, IL19, IL22, IL26, CCL17, CCL24, IFNA, IFNB) in macrophage subsets were investigated over time. Expression of the genes encoding the two main enzymes of the arginine pathway (ARG1, NOS2), and molecules related to alternative macrophage polarization in human and mice (MMP9, MRC1, FIZZ1, VEGFA) were also assessed. Stimulation with IFN-γ + LPS triggered up-regulation of IL1B2, IFNB, NOS2, whereas IL-4 triggered upregulation of CCL17, CCL24, CXCR2, and ARG1 expression. IL19 and IL22 expression was enhanced by stimulation with IFN-γ + LPS or TGF-β, but not IL-4, IL-10, or dexamethasone. Our data highlighted some peculiarities in swine, such as induced expression of IL33 after stimulation with IFN-γ + LPS, and no up-regulation of FIZZ1, VEGFA or MMP9 after exposure to any of the M2 polarizing stimuli. A better understanding of porcine macrophage polarization could benefit translational studies using this large animal model.

The avian influenza A virus (H7N9), first detected in China in 2013, is a zoonotic virus that remains persistent in bird populations despite a decline in human cases owing to control measures. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a vaccine as one preventive strategy in anticipation of the potential entry of H7N9 into Korea. Using the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase consensus sequences of H7N9 from 2018-2019, a recombinant H7N9 vaccine, rgAPQAH7N9, was developed, and its protective efficacy in specific pathogen-free chickens was evaluated. The rgAPQAH7N9 vaccine exhibited proliferation in eggs and demonstrated high immunogenicity, with a hemagglutination inhibition titer of 9.3 log. Furthermore, the vaccine provided complete protection, as vaccinated chickens did not exhibit clinical signs or viral shedding. Moreover, when the rgAPQAH7N9 vaccine was boosted, the resulting immunity was long-lasting, with hemagglutination inhibition titers > 7 log2 persisting after 6 months. Therefore, the rgAPQAH7N9 vaccine virus may be considered a potential candidate for inclusion in the avian influenza antigen bank to ensure preparedness for emergency vaccination in poultry.

Canine transmissible venereal tumor (CTVT) is transmitted through the implantation of tumor cells. CTVT was the first tumor described with contagious characteristics and remains one of the few tumors with this capability. This study aimed to map the transcriptomic profile of CTVT to elucidate the potential mechanisms through which this tumor implants and evades host immune surveillance. For this study, 11 dogs aged ≥ 2 years diagnosed with CTVT were selected. Tumor biopsies were performed, RNA was extracted and converted into complementary DNA, followed by RT-qPCR analysis. The transcriptomic profile of CTVT revealed a wide array of differentially expressed genes. However, only the most relevant genes from an oncological perspective were discussed. IL-8, CXCL13, NCAM1, RNASEL, COROA1, and CBLB demonstrated potential associations with immune system evasion and transmission via implantation. Therefore, studying these genes may contribute to the development of targeted therapies that prevent contagion and immune evasion.

The CD8 molecule is a cell surface receptor and well described as co-receptor on T cells, binding directly to the major histocompatibility complex class I on antigen presenting cells. CD8 antigens are comprised of two distinct polypeptide chains, the α and the β chain. In the pig, the CD8 receptor is expressed by several lymphocyte subsets, including Natural Killer cells, γδ T cells and antigen experienced CD4 αβ T cells. On these cell populations CD8 is expressed as αα homodimers. Porcine cytolytic T cells on the other hand exclusively express CD8 αβ heterodimers. Several monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) for either of the two chains are available and are frequently used in flow cytometry. We observed that distinct combinations of mAb clones for CD8α and CD8β chains can cause troubles in multi-color staining panels. Therefore, we aimed for an in-depth study of the usage of different CD8-specific mAb clones and optimizing co-staining strategies for flow cytometry. We tested mAb clones 11/295/33 and 76-2-11 for the detection of CD8α and mAb clones PPT23 and PG164A for the detection of CD8β. The results indicate that the CD8α clone 11/295/33 should not be used together with either of the two CD8β clones in the same incubation step, as co-staining led to a highly reduced ability of CD8β mAb binding and loss in signal in flow cytometry. This can lead to potential false results in detecting CD8αβ cytolytic T cells. In case of the CD8α mAb clone 76-2-11, no inhibition in binding of either CD8β mAb clones was observed, making it the preferred choice in multi-color staining panels. The obtained data will help in future panel designs for flow cytometry in the pig and therefore improving studies of porcine immune cells.

Analysis of the recall response ex vivo in cattle vaccinated with a Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) rel deletion mutant revealed the immune response was directed toward a 35 kD major membrane protein (MMP) of Map. Antigen presenting cells (APC) primed with MMP elicited expansion of CD8 cytotoxic memory T cells (CTL) with ability to kill intracellular bacteria. Development of CTL was MHC-restricted. The gene MAP2121c, encoding MMP, was modified for expression of MMP (tPA-MMP-2mut) in a mammalian cell line to explore the potential of developing MMP as a vaccine. Ex vivo stimulation of PBMC, from Map free cattle, with APC primed with tPA-MMP-2mut expressed p35 elicited a primary CD8 CTL response comparable to the recall response elicited with PBMC from cattle vaccinated with either the Maprel deletion mutant or MMP. In the present study, the modified gene for MMP, now referred to as p35NN, was placed into a bovine herpes virus-4 (BoHV4) vector to determine the potential use of BoHV-4AΔTK-p35NN as a peptide-based vaccine. Subcutaneous vaccination of healthy cattle with BoHV-4AΔTK-p35NN elicited a CTL recall response, as detected ex vivo. The results show use of a virus vector is an effective way for delivery of MMP as a vaccine. The immunogenic activity of MMP was not lost when modified for expression in mammalian cells. The next step is to conduct a field trial to determine if presence of an immune response to MMP prevents Map from establishing an infection.

Innate immune parameters, a first line of defense against invading pathogens like bacteria, parasites, fungi, etc, play a significant role in the prevention and elimination of aetiological agents primarily by recognition of invading pathogen-specific molecules by different pattern recognition receptors. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), a type-I transmembrane glycoprotein, cause innate immune responses mainly by produing inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and interferons. The objective of present study was to determine the role of TLRs in parasite resistance in Malpura sheep. In the current study, transcript variation of TLRs and its downstream signalling molecules namely MyD88, TRIF, IRF-3, TRAF, TGF-β, NFκB, and CD14 were ascertained by real-time PCR in Haemonchus contortus resistant (R) and susceptible (S) Malpura sheep. Results have shown significantly (P<0.05) up-regulated expression of TLR-2, TLR-4, TLR-5, TLR-8 and TLR-10 in July however down-regulated patterns were observed in August and September in R-line sheep compared to S-line sheep. This indicates that at more or less equal parasite load, the TLR genes in R sheep produce more transcripts, but after parasite loads have increased hugely in the S line, they easily surpass the levels seen in the S line. Result suggests that transcriptional activity of the TLR genes was related to parasite load and there were differences between the lines at different infection intensities. Three-point transcript expression observation of the signalling molecules namely TRIF, IRF-3, TRAF, a similar pattern was observed in R sheep compared with S sheep.

CD4 T cells are an integral component of the adaptive immune response, carrying out many functions to combat a diverse range of pathogenic challenges. These cells exhibit remarkable plasticity, differentiating into specialized subsets such as T helper type 1 (T1), T2, T9, T17, T22, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and follicular T helper (T) cells. Each subset is capable of addressing a distinct immunological need ranging from pathogen eradication to regulation of immune homeostasis. As the immune response subsides, CD4 T cells rest down into long-lived memory phenotypes-including central memory (T), effector memory (T), resident memory (T), and terminally differentiated effector memory cells (T) that are localized to facilitate a swift and potent response upon antigen re-encounter. This capacity for long-term immunological memory and rapid reactivation upon secondary exposure highlights the role CD4 T cells play in sustaining both adaptive defense mechanisms and maintenance. Decades of mouse, human, and to a lesser extent, pig T cell research has provided the framework for understanding the role of CD4 T cells in immune responses, but these model systems do not always mimic each other. Although our understanding of pig immunology is not as extensive as mouse or human research, we have gained valuable insight by studying this model. More akin to pigs, our understanding of CD4 T cells in dogs is much less complete. This disparity exists in part because canine immunologists depend on paradigms from mouse and human studies to characterize CD4 T cells in dogs, with a fraction of available lineage-defining antibody markers. Despite this, every major CD4 T cell subset has been described to some extent in dogs. These subsets have been studied in various contexts, including in vitro stimulation, homeostatic conditions, and across a range of disease states. Canine CD4 T cells have been categorized according to lineage-defining characteristics, trafficking patterns, and what cytokines they produce upon stimulation. This review addresses our current understanding of canine CD4 T cells from a comparative perspective by highlighting both the similarities and differences from mouse, human, and pig CD4 T cell biology. We also discuss knowledge gaps in our current understanding of CD4 T cells in dogs that could provide direction for future studies in the field.

The objective of this study was to examine the values of MX dynamin-like GTPase 1 (Mx1), high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1), systemic inflammatory response index (SIRI), systemic inflammatory index (SII), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and other hematological indices in calves with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). The study material was divided into two groups: the SIRS group (comprising 13 calves) and the control group (comprising 10 calves). The independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test were employed for normally distributed and non-normally distributed data, respectively. The relationship between the two groups was determined using Spearman correlation coefficient analysis. Significant differences were identified between the SIRS group and the control group with regard to white blood cell (WBC; P < 0.05), neutrophil (NEU; P < 0.01), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR; P < 0.001) values, in addition to SIRI (P < 0.05), SII (P < 0.01) values. Furthermore, HMGB1 (P < 0.001), Mx1 (P < 0.05), and TNF values (P < 0.001) demonstrated notable disparities between the two groups. As a result of this study, it was concluded that there were significant increases in inflammatory hematological indices, as well as in the levels of HMGB1, Mx1, and TNF, in calves with SIRS.

Research has shown that voraxin α derived from male ticks stimulates blood feeding to engorge in female ticks. Whereas, the oviposition rate, egg weight, and body weight of female ticks were reduced in animals vaccinated with recombinant (r-) voraxin α. These data suggest a potential role of r-voraxin α as a functional anti-tick antigen in Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Amblyomma hebraeum tick infestation. This study investigated the immunogenicity of r-voraxin α protein from Hyalomma anatolicum (H. anatolicum) tick as an anti-tick vaccine in rabbits. The H. anatolicum voraxin α sequence was optimized according to the codon usage in E. coli before being sub-cloned into pQE30. The gene sequence of the voraxin α was synthesized, verified by DNA sequencing, cloned in a pQE30 vector, and transformed into E. coli. Then, the expression of the r-voraxin α protein was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. Subsequently, three rabbits were immunized with the r-voraxin α as the vaccinated group, whereas three rabbits without injection were considered the control group. The result indicated the success of cloning of codon-optimized H. anatolicum voraxin α gene. Moreover, the expression of the r-voraxin α protein (approximately 18 kDa) in the bacterial expression system was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. The results of this study showed that the mortality rate in vaccine recipients increased compared to the control group (P < 0.01). Also, the egg weight, oviposition rate, and engorgement weight of female ticks fed from vaccinated animals were significantly reduced compared to the control group (P < 0.01). The results confirmed that the codon-optimized H. anatolicum voraxin α gene expressed in the bacterial expression system could be a suitable anti-tick vaccine against H. anatolicum tick infestation.